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Footnotes
3 In addition to the definition of CO2e in the Preface, natural gas values in this chapter do not include methane emissions during production from coal mines, oil or gas wells, or abandoned mines and wells.↩
4 Consistent with formatting in the Second State of the Carbon Cycle Report (SOCCR2), this chapter presents emissions data in grams (g) and the International System of Units for multiples of grams—teragram (Tg): a unit of mass equal to 1012 grams = 1 million metric tons (Mt); petagram (Pg): a unit of mass equal to 1015 grams = 1 billion metric tons. Petagrams of carbon (Pg C) = gigaton of carbon (Gt C); teragrams of carbon (Tg C) = million metric tons of carbon = megaton of carbon (Mt C); Tg C = 1012 grams = 106 ton.↩
5 The Kaya Identity is an accounting technique that includes factors, sometimes called “immediate drivers,” that connect with or represent a larger number of underlying drivers, such as processes, mechanisms, system characteristics, policies, and measures (Blanco et al., 2014).↩
6 For a broader historical examination of the North American energy system and its relationship to the carbon emissions, see Pacala et al. (2007) and Marland et al. (2007).↩
7 Energy end use includes all energy supplied to the consumer for services, such as motive power, cooking, illumination, comfortable indoor climate, and refrigeration. Energy end use typically is disaggregated into end-use sectors: industry, transport, buildings (residential and commercial), and agriculture. It is differentiated from energy supply, which consists of all energy used in a sequence of processes for extracting energy resources, converting them into more desirable and suitable forms of secondary energy (i.e., electricity and heat), and delivering energy to places where demand exists. Primary energy is the energy embodied in resources as they exist in nature, and final energy is the energy transported and distributed to the point of users (e.g., firms, individuals or organizations) (Grubler et al., 2012).↩
8 Energy is measured with different units such as joules (J), British thermal units (BTUs), tons oil equivalents (toe), gigawatt hours (GWh), barrels of oil (BBL), and billion cubic feet (ft3) of natural gas (BCF). This chapter refers to energy use in joules (J) and the International System of Units for multiples of joules: kilojoule (kJ) = 103 J, megajoule (MJ) = 106 J, gigajoule (GJ) = 109 J, terajoule (TJ) = 1012 J, petajoule (PJ) = 1015 J, exajoule (EJ) = 1018 J, and zettajoule (ZJ) = 1021 J.↩
9 TEUs are standardized measures of a ship’s cargo-carrying capacity. The dimensions of one TEU are equal to that of a standard 20-foot shipping container (i.e., 20 feet long by 8 feet tall). Usually nine to 11 pallets fit in one TEU.↩
10 Only since recently has the U.S. Department of Energy's Energy Information Administration (EIA) officially collected data on small-scale renewables (<1 megawatt [MW] of generation capacity), and only since 2017 have these values been added to the Short-Term Energy Outlook reports (EIA 2017a). The amount of small-scale renewable energy, however, is considerable. For example, EIA estimates for 2016 show that about 37% of total annual photovoltaic solar generation is from small-scale generators having a capacity less than 1 MW (EIA 2017m). Hence, the figures presented here may underestimate total renewable energy electricity generation.↩
11 Leakage effects may occur for a number of reasons including 1) when the emissions policy of a political unit (such as a city, state, or country) raises local costs, subsequently giving a trading advantage to emitters from other political units with a more relaxed policy; 2) when production units in higher emissions cost areas move to locations of cheaper costs; or 3) when environmental policies in one political unit add a premium to certain fuels or commodities, with subsequent fall in demand, that is matched by increases in other political units that do not place a premium on those fuels. GHG leakage is typically defined as an increase in CO2e emissions outside the political unit taking mitigation actions divided by the reduction in emissions within these political units (Barker et al., 2007).↩
12 The global warming potential (GWP) of methane (CH4) varies across time because of its relatively short half-life in the atmosphere. Because this half-life changes somewhat according to carbon-climate feedbacks, CH4 GWP for the 100-year and 20-year time frames ranges from 28 to 34 and 84 to 86, respectively (see Myhre et al., 2013).↩
13 For a discussion of how long these emissions might stay in the atmosphere, see Ch. 8: Observations of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and Methane.↩
14 The Paris Agreement (UNFCCC 2015) resulted from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21).↩
15 Feed-in tariffs (FIT) are policy mechanisms used to encourage deployment of renewable electricity technologies. FITs typically guarantee that customers who own a FIT-eligible renewable electricity-generation facility, such as a rooftop solar photovoltaic system, will receive a set price for their utility for all the electricity they generate and provide to the grid.↩
16 On-bill financing refers to loans made to utility customers, the proceeds of which would pay for investments in energy efficiency improvements. Regular monthly loan payments are then collected by the utility on the utility bill until the loan is repaid.↩
17 In preparation for the Conference of the Parties for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), negotiating parties were invited to submit Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs). INDCs publicly outlined what post-2020 climate actions (including targets for emissions levels) were intended by each signatory under the new international agreement. The actions were “intended” prior to the Paris Agreement, but when a country became a signatory, the plans became Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). The United States submitted an INDC and became a signatory to the agreement, but it has subsequently announced its intention to withdraw from the agreement, a process which cannot happen until after 2020 (https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-7d&chapter=27&clang=_en). Both the governments of Canada and Mexico have ratified the Paris agreement.↩
18 A debate has emerged in this literature concerning the portfolio of clean energy technologies and energy carriers necessary for the transformation (see for example, Clack et al., 2017).↩
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