Lead Authors:
Daniel J. Hayes, University of Maine
Rodrigo Vargas, University of Delaware
Contributing Authors:
Simone R. Alin, NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory
Richard T. Conant, Colorado State University
Lucy R. Hutyra, Boston University
Andrew R. Jacobson, University of Colorado, Boulder, and NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory
Werner A. Kurz, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service
Shuguang Liu, Central South University of Forestry and Technology
A. David McGuire, U.S. Geological Survey and University of Alaska, Fairbanks
Benjamin Poulter, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Christopher W. Woodall, USDA Forest Service
Science Lead:
Melanie A. Mayes, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Review Editor:
Tara Hudiburg, University of Idaho
Federal Liaison:
Noel P. Gurwick, U.S. Agency for International Development

The North American Carbon Budget

REFERENCES

Abbott, B. W., J. B. J. Jones, E. A. G. Schuur, F. S. I. Chapin, W. B. Bowden, M. S. Bret-Harte, H. E. Epstein, M. D. Flannigan, T. K. Harms, T. N. Hollingsworth, M. C. Mack, A. D. McGuire, S. Natali, M., A. V. Rocha, S. E. Tank, M. Turetsky, R., J. E. Vonk, K. P. Wickland, G. R. Aiken, H. D. Alexander, R. M. W. Amon, B. W. Bensoter, Y. Bergeron, K. Bishop, O. Blarquez, B. Bond-Lamberty, A. L. Breen, I. Buffam, Y. Cai, C. Carcaillet, S. K. Carey, J. M. Chen, H. Y. H. Chen, T. R. Christensen, L. W. Cooper, J. H. C. Cornelissen, W. J. de Groot, T. H. DeLuca, E. Dorrepaal, N. Fetcher, J. C. Finlay, B. C. Forbes, N. H. F. French, S. Gauthier, M. P. Girardin, S. J. Goetz, J. G. Goldammer, L. Gouch, P. Grogan, L. Guo, P. E. Higuera, L. Hinzman, F. S. Hu, G. Hugelius, E. E. Jafarov, R. Jandt, J. F. Johnstone, J. Karlsson, E. S. Kasischke, G. Kattner, R. Kelly, F. Keuper, G. W. Kling, P. Kortelainen, J. Kouki, P. Kuhry, H. Laudon, I. Laurion, R. W. Macdonald, P. J. Mann, P. J. Martikainen, J. W. McClelland, U. Molau, S. F. Oberbauer, D. Olefeldt, D. Paré, M.-A. Parisien, S. Payette, C. Peng, O. S. Pokrovksy, E. B. Rastetter, P. A. Raymond, M. K. Raynolds, G. Rein, J. F. Reynolds, M. Robard, B. M. Rogers, C. Schädel, K. Schaefer, I. K. Schmidt, A. Shvidenko, J. Sky, R. G. M. Spencer, G. Starr, R. G. Striegl, R. Teisserenc, L. J. Tranvik, T. Virtanen, J. M. Welker, and S. Zimov, 2016: Biomass offsets little or none of permafrost carbon release from soils, streams, and wildfire: An expert assessment. Environmental Research Letters, 11(3), 034014, doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/11/3/034014.

Adams, H. D., A. P. Williams, C. Xu, S. A. Rauscher, X. Jiang, and N. G. McDowell, 2013: Empirical and process-based approaches to climate-induced forest mortality models. Frontiers in Plant Science, 4, 438, doi: 10.3389/fpls.2013.00438.

Ahlstrom, A., M. R. Raupach, G. Schurgers, B. Smith, A. Arneth, M. Jung, M. Reichstein, J. G. Canadell, P. Friedlingstein, A. K. Jain, E. Kato, B. Poulter, S. Sitch, B. D. Stocker, N. Viovy, Y. P. Wang, A. Wiltshire, S. Zaehle, and N. Zeng, 2015: Carbon cycle. The dominant role of semi-arid ecosystems in the trend and variability of the land CO2 sink. Science, 348(6237), 895-899, doi: 10.1126/science.aaa1668.

Anderegg, W. R. L., J. M. Kane, and L. D. L. Anderegg, 2013: Consequences of widespread tree mortality triggered by drought and temperature stress. Nature Climate Change, 3(1), 30-36, doi: 10.1038/nclimate1635.

Andres, R. J., T. A. Boden, and D. Higdon, 2014: A new evaluation of the uncertainty associated with CDIAC estimates of fossil fuel carbon dioxide emission. Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology, 66(1), 23616, doi: 10.3402/tellusb.v66.23616.

Battin, T. J., S. Luyssaert, L. A. Kaplan, A. K. Aufdenkampe, A. Richter, and L. J. Tranvik, 2009: The boundless carbon cycle. Nature Geoscience, 2(9), 598-600, doi: 10.1038/ngeo618.

Bauer, J. E., W.-J. Cai, P. A. Raymond, T. S. Bianchi, C. S. Hopkinson, and P. A. G. Regnier, 2013: The changing carbon cycle of the coastal ocean. Nature, 504(7478), 61-70, doi: 10.1038/nature12857.

Beck, P. S. A., and S. J. Goetz, 2011: Satellite observations of high northern latitude vegetation productivity changes between 1982 and 2008: Ecological variability and regional differences. Environmental Research Letters, 6(4), 049501.

Biederman, J. A., R. L. Scott, M. L. Goulden, R. Vargas, M. E. Litvak, T. E. Kolb, E. A. Yepez, W. C. Oechel, P. D. Blanken, T. W. Bell, and J. Garatuza‐Payan, 2016: Terrestrial carbon balance in a drier world: The effects of water availability in southwestern North America. Global Change Biology, 22(5), 1867-1879, doi: 10.1111/gcb.13222.

Birdsey, R. A., and L. S. Heath, 1995: Carbon changes in U.S. forests. In: Productivity of America’s Forests and Climate Change. General Technical Report RM-GTR-271. [L. A. Joyce (ed.)]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest Experiment Station, pp. 56-70.

Bloom, A. A., K. W. Bowman, M. Lee, A. J. Turner, R. Schroeder, J. R. Worden, R. Weidner, K. C. McDonald, and D. J. Jacob, 2017: A global wetland methane emissions and uncertainty dataset for atmospheric chemical transport models (WetCHARTs version 1.0). Geoscientific Model Development, 10(6), 2141-2156, doi: 10.5194/gmd-10-2141-2017.

Boden, T. A., G. Marland, and R. J. Andres, 2017: Global, Regional, and National Fossil Fuel CO2 Emissions Technical Report, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, U. S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA. doi: 10.3334/CDIAC/00001–V2017.

Boden, T. A., G. Marland, and R. J. Andres, 2015: Global, Regional, and National Fossil-Fuel CO2 Emissions. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, U. S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA [URL]

Bourgeois, T., J. C. Orr, L. Resplandy, J. Terhaar, C. Ethé, M. Gehlen, and L. Bopp, 2016: Coastal-ocean uptake of anthropogenic carbon. Biogeosciences, 13(14), 4167-4185, doi: 10.5194/bg-13-4167-2016.

Brandt, A. R., G. A. Heath, E. A. Kort, F. O’Sullivan, G. Petron, S. M. Jordaan, P. Tans, J. Wilcox, A. M. Gopstein, D. Arent, S. Wofsy, N. J. Brown, R. Bradley, G. D. Stucky, D. Eardley, and R. Harriss, 2014: Methane leaks from North American natural gas systems. Science, 343(6172), 733-735, doi: 10.1126/science.1247045.

Bruhwiler, L. M., S. Basu, P. Bergamaschi, P. Bousquet, E. Dlugokencky, S. Houweling, , M. Ishizawa, H. S. Kim, R. Locatelli, S. Maksyutov, S. Montzka, S. Pandey, P. K. Patra, G. Petron, M. Saunois, C. Sweeney, S. Schwietzke, P. Tans, and E. C. Weatherhead, 2017: U.S. CH4 emissions from oil and gas production: Have recent large increases been detected? Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 122(7), 4070-4083, doi: 10.1002/2016JD026157.

Cai, W. J., 2011: Estuarine and coastal ocean carbon paradox: CO2 sinks or sites of terrestrial carbon incineration? Annual Review of Marine Science, 3, 123-145, doi: 10.1146/annurev-marine-120709-142723.

Caspersen, J. P., S. W. Pacala, J. C. Jenkins, G. C. Hurtt, P. R. Moorcroft, and R. A. Birdsey, 2000: Contributions of land-use history to carbon accumulation in US forests. Science, 290(5494), 1148-1151.

CCSP, 2007: First State of the Carbon Cycle Report (SOCCR): The North American Carbon Budget and Implications for the Gobal Carbon Cycle. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [A. W. King, L. Dilling, G. P. Zimmerman, D. M. Fairman, R. A. Houghton, G. Marland, A. Z. Rose, and T. J. Wilbanks (eds.)]. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC, USA, 242 pp.

Chen, C–T. A., T. H. Huang, Y. C. Chen, Y. Bai, X. He, and Y. Kang, 2013: Air-sea exchanges of CO2 in the world’s coastal seas. Biogeosciences, 10(10), 6509-6544, doi: 10.5194/bg-10-6509-2013.

Chen, G., D. J. Hayes, and A. David McGuire, 2017: Contributions of wildland fire to terrestrial ecosystem carbon dynamics in North America from 1990 to 2012. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 31(5), 878-900, doi: 10.1002/2016GB005548.

Conley, S., G. Franco, I. Faloona, D. R. Blake, J. Peischl, and T. B. Ryerson, 2016: Methane emissions from the 2015 Aliso Canyon blowout in Los Angeles, CA. Science, 351(6279), 1317-1320, doi: 10.1126/science.aaf2348.

Dahal, D., S. Liu, and J. Oeding, 2014: The carbon cycle and hurricanes in the United States between 1900 and 2011. Scientific Reports, 4, 5197, doi: 10.1038/srep05197.

de Jong, B., C. Anaya, O. Masera, M. Olguín, F. Paz, J. Etchevers, R. D. Martínez, G. Guerrero, and C. Balbontín, 2010: Greenhouse gas emissions between 1993 and 2002 from land-use change and forestry in Mexico. Forest Ecology and Management, 260(10),
1689-1701, doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2010.08.011.

Desai, A. R., K. Xu, H. Tian, P. Weishampel, J. Thom, D. Baumann, A. E. Andrews, B. D. Cook, J. Y. King, and R. Kolka, 2015: Landscape-level terrestrial methane flux observed from a very tall tower. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 201, 61-75, doi: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2014.10.017.

Dlugokencky, E. J., E. G. Nisbet, R. Fisher, and D. Lowry, 2011: Global atmospheric methane: Budget, changes and dangers. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 369(1943), 2058-2072, doi: 10.1098/rsta.2010.0341.

Dlugokencky, E. J., L. Bruhwiler, J. W. C. White, L. K. Emmons, P. C. Novelli, S. A. Montzka, K. A. Masarie, P. M. Lang, A. M. Crotwell, J. B. Miller, and L. V. Gatti, 2009: Observational constraints on recent increases in the atmospheric CH4 burden. Geophysical Research Letters, 36(18), doi: 10.1029/2009GL039780.

Environment Canada, 2011: National Inventory Report 1990-2009: Greenhouse Gas Sources and Sinks in Canada. The government of Canada’s Submission to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. Environment Canada. [URL]

Epstein, H. E., M. K. Raynolds, D. A. Walker, U. S. Bhatt, C. J. Tucker, and J. E. Pinzon, 2012: Dynamics of aboveground phytomass of the circumpolar Arctic tundra during the past three decades. Environmental Research Letters, 7(1), 015506, doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/7/1/015506.

Fan, S., M. Gloor, J. Mahlman, S. Pacala, J. Sarmiento, T. Takahashi, and P. Tans, 1998: A large terrestrial carbon sink in North America implied by atmospheric and oceanic carbon dioxide data and models. Science, 282(5388), 442, doi: 10.1126/science.282.5388.442.

Field, C. B., J. Sarmiento, and B. Hales, 2007: The carbon cycle of North America in a global context. In: First State of the Carbon Cycle Report (SOCCR): The North American Carbon Budget and Implications for the Global Carbon Cycle. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [A. King, W. L. Dilling, G. P. Zimmerman, D. M. Fairman, R. A. Houghton, G. Marland, A. Z. Rose, and T. J. Wilbanks (eds.)]. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC, USA, pp. 21-28.

Flores, C., D. L. Bounds, and D. E. Ruby, 2011: Does prescribed fire benefit wetland vegetation? Wetlands, 31(1), 35-44, doi: 10.1007/s13157-010-0131-x.

Frankenberg, C., A. K. Thorpe, D. R. Thompson, G. Hulley, E. A. Kort, N. Vance, J. Borchardt, T. Krings, K. Gerilowski, C. Sweeney, S. Conley, B. D. Bue, A. D. Aubrey, S. Hook, and R. O. Green, 2016: Airborne methane remote measurements reveal heavy-tail flux distribution in Four Corners region. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 113(35), 9734-9739, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1605617113.

Friedlingstein, P., P. Cox, R. Betts, L. Bopp, W. von Bloh, V. Brovkin, P. Cadule, S. Doney, M. Eby, I. Fung, G. Bala, J. John, C. Jones, F. Joos, T. Kato, M. Kawamiya, W. Knorr, K. Lindsay, H. D. Matthews, T. Raddatz, P. Rayner, C. Reick, E. Roeckner, K. G. Schnitzler, R. Schnur, K. Strassmann, A. J. Weaver, C. Yoshikawa, and N. Zeng, 2006: Climate–carbon cycle feedback analysis: Results from the C4MIP model intercomparison. Journal of Climate, 19(14), 3337-3353, doi: 10.1175/jcli3800.1.

Genet, H., Y. He, A. D. McGuire, Q. Zhuang, Y. Zhang, F. Biles, D. V. D’Amore, X. Zhou, and K. D. Johnson, 2016: Terrestrial carbon modeling: Baseline and projections in upland ecosystems. In: Baseline and Projected Future Carbon Storage and Greenhouse-Gas Fluxes in Ecosystems of Alaska. [Z. Zhu and A. D. McGuire (eds.)]. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1826, pp. 105-132.

Göckede, M., D. P. Turner, A. M. Michalak, D. Vickers, and B. E. Law, 2010: Sensitivity of a subregional scale atmospheric inverse CO2 modeling framework to boundary conditions. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 115(D24), doi: 10.1029/2010jd014443.

Goetz, S., and R. Dubayah, 2014: Advances in remote sensing technology and implications for measuring and monitoring forest carbon stocks and change. Carbon Management, 2(3), 231-244, doi: 10.4155/cmt.11.18.

Goodale, C. L., M. J. Apps, R. A. Birdsey, C. B. Field, L. S. Heath, R. A. Houghton, J. C. Jenkins, G. H. Kohlmaier, W. Kurz, S. Liu, G.-J. Nabuurs, S. Nilsson, and A. Z. Shvidenko, 2002: Forest carbon sinks in the Northern Hemisphere. Ecological Applications, 12(3), 891-899, doi: 10.2307/3060997.

Gurney, K. R., P. Romero-Lankao, K. C. Seto, L. R. Hutyra, R. Duren, C. Kennedy, N. B. Grimm, J. R. Ehleringer, P. Marcotullio, S. Hughes, S. Pincetl, M. V. Chester, D. M. Runfola, J. J. Feddema, and J. Sperling, 2015: Climate change: Track urban emissions on a human scale. Nature, 525(7568), 179-181, doi: 10.1038/525179a.

Gurney, K. R., R. M. Law, A. S. Denning, P. J. Rayner, D. Baker, P. Bousquet, L. Bruhwiler, Y. H. Chen, P. Ciais, S. Fan, I. Y. Fung, M. Gloor, M. Heimann, K. Higuchi, J. John, T. Maki, S. Maksyutov, K. Masarie, P. Peylin, M. Prather, B. C. Pak, J. Randerson, J. Sarmiento, S. Taguchi, T. Takahashi, and C. W. Yuen, 2002: Towards robust regional estimates of CO2 sources and sinks using atmospheric transport models. Nature, 415(6872), 626-630, doi: 10.1038/415626a.

Hartmann, H., H. D. Adams, W. R. Anderegg, S. Jansen, and M. J. Zeppel, 2015: Research frontiers in drought-induced tree mortality: Crossing scales and disciplines. New Phytologist, 205(3), 965-969, doi: 10.1111/nph.13246.

Hawbaker, T., and Z. Zhu, 2012: Projected future wildland fires and emissions for the Western United States. In: Baseline and Projected Future Carbon Storage and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Ecosystems of the Western United States. [Z. Zhu and B. Reed (eds.)]. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1797, 192 pp.

Hawbaker, T., and Z. Zhu, 2014: Wildland fire occurrence and emissions in the Eastern United States from 2001 through 2050. In: Baseline and Projected Future Carbon Storage and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Ecosystems of the Eastern United States. [Z. Zhu and B. Reed (eds.)]. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1804, 204 pp.

Hayes, D., and D. Turner, 2012: The need for “apples-to-apples” comparisons of carbon dioxide source and sink estimates. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union, 93(41), 404-405, doi: 10.1029/2012EO410007.

Hayes, D. J., A. D. McGuire, D. W. Kicklighter, K. R. Gurney, T. J. Burnside, and J. M. Melillo, 2011: Is the northern high-latitude land-based CO2 sink weakening? Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 25(3), doi: 10.1029/2010gb003813.

Hayes, D. J., D. W. Kicklighter, A. D. McGuire, M. Chen, Q. Zhuang, F. Yuan, J. M. Melillo, and S. D. Wullschleger, 2014: The impacts of recent permafrost thaw on land–atmosphere greenhouse gas exchange. Environmental Research Letters, 9(4), 045005, doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/9/4/045005.

Hayes, D. J., D. P. Turner, G. Stinson, A. D. McGuire, Y. Wei, T. O. West, L. S. Heath, B. Jong, B. G. McConkey, R. A. Birdsey, W. A. Kurz, A. R. Jacobson, D. N. Huntzinger, Y. Pan, W. M. Post, and R. B. Cook, 2012: Reconciling estimates of the contemporary North American carbon balance among terrestrial biosphere models, atmospheric inversions, and a new approach for estimating net ecosystem exchange from inventory-based data. Global Change Biology, 18(4), 1282-1299, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02627.x.

Heath, L. S., J. E. Smith, K. E. Skog, D. J. Nowak, and C. W. Woodall, 2011: Managed forest carbon estimates for the US greenhouse gas inventory, 1990-2008. Journal of Forestry, 109(3), 167-173.

Hendrick, M. F., R. Ackley, B. Sanaie-Movahed, X. Tang, and N. G. Phillips, 2016: Fugitive methane emissions from leak-prone natural gas distribution infrastructure in urban environments. Environmental Pollution, 213, 710-716, doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.01.094.

Houghton, R. A., 1999: The annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use 1850–1990. Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology, 51(2), 298-313, doi: 10.3402/tellusb.v51i2.16288.

Houghton, R. A., 2003: Revised estimates of the annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use and land management 1850-2000. Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology, 55(2), 378-390, doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0889.2003.01450.x.

Houghton, R. A., and J. L. Hackler, 2000: Changes in terrestrial carbon storage in the United States. 1: The roles of agriculture and forestry. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 9(2), 125-144, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00166.x.

Huntzinger, D. N., A. M. Michalak, C. Schwalm, P. Ciais, A. W. King, Y. Fang, K. Schaefer, Y. Wei, R. B. Cook, J. B. Fisher, D. Hayes, M. Huang, A. Ito, A. K. Jain, H. Lei, C. Lu, F. Maignan, J. Mao, N. Parazoo, S. Peng, B. Poulter, D. Ricciuto, X. Shi, H. Tian, W. Wang, N. Zeng, and F. Zhao, 2017: Uncertainty in the response of terrestrial carbon sink to environmental drivers undermines carbon-climate feedback predictions. Science Reports, 7(1), 4765, doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-03818-2.

Huntzinger, D. N., W. M. Post, Y. Wei, A. M. Michalak, T. O. West, A. R. Jacobson, I. T. Baker, J. M. Chen, K. J. Davis, D. J. Hayes, F. M. Hoffman, A. K. Jain, S. Liu, A. D. McGuire, R. P. Neilson, C. Potter, B. Poulter, D. Price, B. M. Raczka, H. Q. Tian, P. Thornton, E. Tomelleri, N. Viovy, J. Xiao, W. Yuan, N. Zeng, M. Zhao, and R. Cook, 2012: North American Carbon Program (NACP) regional interim synthesis: Terrestrial biospheric model intercomparison. Ecological Modelling, 232, 144-157, doi: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2012.02.004.

Hurtt, G. C., S. W. Pacala, P. R. Moorcroft, J. Caspersen, E. Shevliakova, R. A. Houghton, and B. Moore, 3rd, 2002: Projecting the future of the U.S. carbon sink. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 99(3), 1389-1394, doi: 10.1073/pnas.012249999.

Hutyra, L. R., R. Duren, K. R. Gurney, N. Grimm, E. A. Kort, E. Larson, and G. Shrestha, 2014: Urbanization and the carbon cycle: Current capabilities and research outlook from the natural sciences perspective. Earth’s Future, 2(10), 473-495, doi: 10.1002/2014ef000255.

IEA, 2005: CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion, 1971–2003. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development and International Energy Agency. OECD Publishing, Paris, 506 pp. doi: 10.1787/co2_fuel-2005-en-fr.

INECC/SEMARNAT, 2015: First Biennial Update Report to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Instituto Nacional de Ecologίa y Cambio Climático and Secretarίa de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, Mexico City.

Jung, M., M. Reichstein, and A. Bondeau, 2009: Towards global empirical upscaling of fluxnet eddy covariance observations: Validation of a model tree ensemble approach using a biosphere model. Biogeosciences, 6(10), 2001-2013, doi: 10.5194/bg-6-2001-2009.

King, A. W., D. J. Hayes, D. N. Huntzinger, T. O. West, and W. M. Post, 2012: North American carbon dioxide sources and sinks: Magnitude, attribution, and uncertainty. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10(10), 512-519, doi: 10.1890/120066.

King, A. W., R. J. Andres, K. J. Davis, M. Hafer, D. J. Hayes, D. N. Huntzinger, B. de Jong, W. A. Kurz, A. D. McGuire, R. Vargas, Y. Wei, T. O. West, and C. W. Woodall, 2015: North America’s net terrestrial CO2 exchange with the atmosphere 1990–2009. Biogeosciences, 12(2), 399-414, doi: 10.5194/bg-12-399-2015.

Kirschke, S., P. Bousquet, P. Ciais, M. Saunois, J. G. Canadell, E. J. Dlugokencky, P. Bergamaschi, D. Bergmann, D. R. Blake, L. Bruhwiler, P. Cameron-Smith, S. Castaldi, F. Chevallier, L. Feng, A. Fraser, M. Heimann, E. L. Hodson, S. Houweling, B. Josse, P. J. Fraser, P. B. Krummel, J.-F. Lamarque, R. L. Langenfelds, C. Le Quéré, V. Naik, S. O’Doherty, P. I. Palmer, I. Pison, D. Plummer, B. Poulter, R. G. Prinn, M. Rigby, B. Ringeval, M. Santini, M. Schmidt, D. T. Shindell, I. J. Simpson, R. Spahni, L. P. Steele, S. A. Strode, K. Sudo, S. Szopa, G. R. van der Werf, A. Voulgarakis, M. van Weele, R. F. Weiss, J. E. Williams, and G. Zeng, 2013: Three decades of global methane sources and sinks. Nature Geoscience, 6(10), 813-823, doi: 10.1038/ngeo1955.

Kurz, W. A., C. Smyth, and T. Lemprière, 2016: Climate change mitigation through forest sector activities: Principles, potential and priorities. Unasylva, 246(67), 61-67.

Kurz, W. A., C. H. Shaw, C. Boisvenue, G. Stinson, J. Metsaranta, D. Leckie, A. Dyk, C. Smyth, and E. T. Neilson, 2013: Carbon in Canada’s boreal forest — A synthesis. Environmental Reviews, 21(4), 260-292, doi: 10.1139/er-2013-0041.

Kurz, W. A., C. C. Dymond, T. M. White, G. Stinson, C. H. Shaw, G. J. Rampley, C. Smyth, B. N. Simpson, E. T. Neilson, J. A. Trofymow, J. Metsaranta, and M. J. Apps, 2009: CBM-CFS3: A model of carbon-dynamics in forestry and land-use change implementing IPCC standards. Ecological Modelling, 220(4), 480-504, doi: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2008.10.018.

Laruelle, G. G., R. Lauerwald, J. Rotschi, P. A. Raymond, J. Hartmann, and P. Regnier, 2015: Seasonal response of air–water CO2 exchange along the land–ocean aquatic continuum of the northeast North American coast. Biogeosciences, 12(5), 1447-1458, doi: 10.5194/bg-12-1447-2015.

Le Quéré, C., R. Moriarty, R. M. Andrew, G. P. Peters, P. Ciais, P. Friedlingstein, S. D. Jones, S. Sitch, P. Tans, A. Arneth, T. A. Boden, L. Bopp, Y. Bozec, J. G. Canadell, L. P. Chini, F. Chevallier, C. E. Cosca, I. Harris, M. Hoppema, R. A. Houghton, J. I. House, A. K. Jain, T. Johannessen, E. Kato, R. F. Keeling, V. Kitidis, K. Klein Goldewijk, C. Koven, C. S. Landa, P. Landschützer, A. Lenton, I. D. Lima, G. Marland, J. T. Mathis, N. Metzl, Y. Nojiri, A. Olsen, T. Ono, S. Peng, W. Peters, B. Pfeil, B. Poulter, M. R. Raupach, P. Regnier, C. Rödenbeck, S. Saito, J. E. Salisbury, U. Schuster, J. Schwinger, R. Séférian, J. Segschneider, T. Steinhoff, B. D. Stocker, A. J. Sutton, T. Takahashi, B. Tilbrook, G. R. van der Werf, N. Viovy, Y. P. Wang, R. Wanninkhof, A. Wiltshire, and N. Zeng, 2015: Global carbon budget 2014. Earth System Science Data, 7(1), 47-85, doi: 10.5194/essd-7-47-2015.

Le Quéré, C., R. M. Andrew, J. G. Canadell, S. Sitch, J. I. Korsbakken, G. P. Peters, A. C. Manning, T. A. Boden, P. P. Tans, R. A. Houghton, R. F. Keeling, S. Alin, O. D. Andrews, P. Anthoni, L. Barbero, L. Bopp, F. Chevallier, L. P. Chini, P. Ciais, K. Currie, C. Delire, S. C. Doney, P. Friedlingstein, T. Gkritzalis, I. Harris, J. Hauck, V. Haverd, M. Hoppema, K. Klein Goldewijk, A. K. Jain, E. Kato, A. Körtzinger, P. Landschützer, N. Lefèvre, A. Lenton, S. Lienert, D. Lombardozzi, J. R. Melton, N. Metzl, F. Millero, P. M. S. Monteiro, D. R. Munro, J. E. M. S. Nabel, S.-i. Nakaoka, amp, apos, K. Brien, A. Olsen, A. M. Omar, T. Ono, D. Pierrot, B. Poulter, C. Rödenbeck, J. Salisbury, U. Schuster, J. Schwinger, R. Séférian, I. Skjelvan, B. D. Stocker, A. J. Sutton, T. Takahashi, H. Tian, B. Tilbrook, I. T. van der Laan-Luijkx, G. R. van der Werf, N. Viovy, A. P. Walker, A. J. Wiltshire, and S. Zaehle, 2016: Global carbon budget 2016. Earth System Science Data, 8(2), 605-649, doi: 10.5194/essd-8-605-2016.

Le Quéré, C., R. M. Andrew, P. Friedlingstein, S. Sitch, J. Pongratz, A. C. Manning, J. I. Korsbakken, G. P. Peters, J. G. Canadell, R. B. Jackson, T. A. Boden, P. P. Tans, O. D. Andrews, V. K. Arora, D. C. E. Bakker, L. Barbero, M. Becker, R. A. Betts, L. Bopp, F. Chevallier, L. P. Chini, P. Ciais, C. E. Cosca, J. Cross, K. Currie, T. Gasser, I. Harris, J. Hauck, V. Haverd, R. A. Houghton, C. W. Hunt, G. Hurtt, T. Ilyina, A. K. Jain, E. Kato, M. Kautz, R. F. Keeling, K. Klein Goldewijk, A. Körtzinger, P. Landschützer, N. Lefèvre, A. Lenton, S. Lienert, I. Lima, D. Lombardozzi, N. Metzl, F. Millero, P. M. S. Monteiro, D. R. Munro, J. E. M. S. Nabel, S. I. Nakaoka, Y. Nojiri, X. A. Padin, A. Peregon, B. Pfeil, D. Pierrot, B. Poulter, G. Rehder, J. Reimer, C. Rödenbeck, J. Schwinger, R. Séférian, I. Skjelvan, B. D. Stocker, H. Tian, B. Tilbrook, F. N. Tubiello, I. T. van der Laan-Luijkx, G. R. van der Werf, S. van Heuven, N. Viovy, N. Vuichard, A. P. Walker, A. J. Watson, A. J. Wiltshire, S. Zaehle, and D. Zhu, 2018: Global Carbon Budget 2017. Earth System Science Data, 10(1), 405-448, doi: 10.5194/essd-10-405-2018.

Lemprière, T. C., W. A. Kurz, E. H. Hogg, C. Schmoll, G. J. Rampley, D. Yemshanov, D. W. McKenney, R. Gilsenan, A. Beatch, D. Blain, J. S. Bhatti, and E. Krcmar, 2013: Canadian boreal forests and climate change mitigation. Environmental Reviews, 21(4), 293-321, doi: 10.1139/er-2013-0039.

Liu, S., Y. Wu, C. Young, D. Dahal, J. L. Werner, J. Liu, Z. Li, Z. Tan, G. L. Schmidt, J. Oeding, T. L. Sohl, T. J. Hawbaker, and B. M. Sleeter, 2012: Projected future carbon storage and greenhouse-gas fluxes of terrestrial ecosystems in the Western United States. In: Baseline and Projected Future Carbon Storage and Greenhouse-Gas Fluxes in Ecosystems of the Western United States. [Z. Zhu and B. C. Reed (eds.)]. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1797, pp. 109-124. [URL]

Liu, S., J. Liu, Y. Wu, C. J. Young, J. M. Werner, D. Dahal, J. Oeding, and G. L. Schmidt, 2014: Baseline and projected future carbon storage, carbon sequestration, and greenhouse-gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems of the Eastern United States. In: Baseline and Projected Future Carbon Storage and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Ecosystems of the Eastern United States. [Z. Zhu and B. C. Reed (eds.)]. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1804, pp. 115-156. [URL]

Masek, J. G., D. J. Hayes, M. Joseph Hughes, S. P. Healey, and D. P. Turner, 2015: The role of remote sensing in process-scaling studies of managed forest ecosystems. Forest Ecology and Management, 355, 109-123, doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2015.05.032.

Masera, O. R., M. J. Ordonez, and R. Dirzo, 1997: Carbon emissions from Mexican forests: Current situation and long-term scenarios. Climatic Change, 35(3), 265-295, doi: 10.1023/a:1005309908420.

McGuire, A. D., T. R. Christensen, D. Hayes, A. Heroult, E. Euskirchen, J. S. Kimball, C. Koven, P. Lafleur, P. A. Miller, W. Oechel, P. Peylin, M. Williams, and Y. Yi, 2012: An assessment of the carbon balance of Arctic tundra: Comparisons among observations, process models, and atmospheric inversions. Biogeosciences, 9(8), 3185-3204, doi: 10.5194/bg-9-3185-2012.

McGuire, A. D., S. Sitch, J. S. Clein, R. Dargaville, G. Esser, J. Foley, M. Heimann, F. Joos, J. Kaplan, D. W. Kicklighter, R. A. Meier, J. M. Melillo, B. Moore, I. C. Prentice, N. Ramankutty, T. Reichenau, A. Schloss, H. Tian, L. J. Williams, and U. Wittenberg, 2001: Carbon balance of the terrestrial biosphere in the Twentieth Century: Analyses of CO2, climate and land use effects with four ­process-based ecosystem models. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 15(1), 183-206, doi: 10.1029/2000gb001298.

McGuire, A. D., C. Koven, D. M. Lawrence, J. S. Clein, J. Xia, C. Beer, E. Burke, G. Chen, X. Chen, C. Delire, E. Jafarov, A. H. MacDougall, S. Marchenko, D. Nicolsky, S. Peng, A. Rinke, K. Saito, W. Zhang, R. Alkama, T. J. Bohn, P. Ciais, B. Decharme, A. Ekici, I. Gouttevin, T. Hajima, D. J. Hayes, D. Ji, G. Krinner, D. P. Lettenmaier, Y. Luo, P. A. Miller, J. C. Moore, V. Romanovsky, C. Schädel, K. Schaefer, E. A. G. Schuur, B. Smith, T. Sueyoshi, and Q. Zhuang, 2016: Variability in the sensitivity among model simulations of permafrost and carbon dynamics in the permafrost region between 1960 and 2009. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 30(7), 1015-1037, doi: 10.1002/2016gb005405.

McKain, K., A. Down, S. M. Raciti, J. Budney, L. R. Hutyra, C. Floerchinger, S. C. Herndon, T. Nehrkorn, M. S. Zahniser, R. B. Jackson, N. Phillips, and S. C. Wofsy, 2015: Methane emissions from natural gas infrastructure and use in the urban region of Boston, Massachusetts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 112(7), 1941-1946, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1416261112.

McLeod, E., G. L. Chmura, S. Bouillon, R. Salm, M. Björk, C. M. Duarte, C. E. Lovelock, W. H. Schlesinger, and B. R. Silliman, 2011: A blueprint for blue carbon: Toward an improved understanding of the role of vegetated coastal habitats in sequestering CO2. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 9(10), 552-560, doi: 10.1890/110004.

Miller, S. M., S. C. Wofsy, A. M. Michalak, E. A. Kort, A. E. Andrews, S. C. Biraud, E. J. Dlugokencky, J. Eluszkiewicz, M. L. Fischer, G. Janssens-Maenhout, B. R. Miller, J. B. Miller, S. A. Montzka, T. Nehrkorn, and C. Sweeney, 2013: Anthropogenic emissions of methane in the United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 110(50), 20018-20022, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1314392110.

Murray-Tortarolo, G., P. Friedlingstein, S. Sitch, V. J. Jaramillo, F. Murguía-Flores, A. Anav, Y. Liu, A. Arneth, A. Arvanitis, A. Harper, A. Jain, E. Kato, C. Koven, B. Poulter, B. D. Stocker, A. Wiltshire, S. Zaehle, and N. Zeng, 2016: The carbon cycle in Mexico: Past, present and future of C stocks and fluxes. Biogeosciences, 13(1), 223-238, doi: 10.5194/bg-13-223-2016.

Myhre, G., D. Shindell, F.-M. Bréon, W. Collins, J. Fuglestvedt, J. Huang, D. Koch, J.-F. Lamarque, D. Lee, B. Mendoza, T. Nakajima, A. Robock, G. Stephens, T. Takemura, and H. Zhang, 2013: Anthropogenic and natural radiative forcing. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. [T. F. Stocker, D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex, and P. M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY, USA, pp. 661-740.

NAS, 2018: Improving Characterization of Anthropogenic Methane Emissions in the United States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, doi: 10.17226/24987.

NAS, 2010: Verifying Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Methods to Support International Climate Agreements. The National Academies Press, Washington, DsC. 124 pp.

Nisbet, E. G., E. J. Dlugokencky, M. R. Manning, D. Lowry, R. E. Fisher, J. L. France, S. E. Michel, J. B. Miller, J. W. C. White, B. Vaughn, P. Bousquet, J. A. Pyle, N. J. Warwick, M. Cain, R. Brownlow, G. Zazzeri, M. Lanoisellé, A. C. Manning, E. Gloor, D. E. J. Worthy, E. G. Brunke, C. Labuschagne, E. W. Wolff, and A. L. Ganesan, 2016: Rising atmospheric methane: 2007–2014 Growth and isotopic shift. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 30(9), 1356-1370, doi: 10.1002/2016gb005406.

Norby, R. J., and D. R. Zak, 2011: Ecological lessons from Free-Air CO2 Enrichment (FACE) experiments. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 42(1), 181-203, doi: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102209-144647.

Pacala, S., R. A. Birdsey, S. D. Bridgham, R. T. Conant, K. Davis, B. Hales, R. A. Houghton, J. C. Jenkins, M. Johnston, G. Marland, and K. Paustian, 2007. The North American carbon budget past and present. In: First State of the Carbon Cycle Report (SOCCR): The North American carbon budget and implications for the global carbon cycle. A report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [A. W. King, L. Dilling, G.P. Zimmerman, D.M. Fairman, R.A. Houghton, G. Marland, A.Z. Rose, and T. J. Wilbanks (eds.)]. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC, USA, 29-36 pp.

Pacala, S. W., G. C. Hurtt, D. Baker, P. Peylin, R. A. Houghton, R. A. Birdsey, L. Heath, E. T. Sundquist, R. F. Stallard, P. Ciais, P. Moorcroft, J. P. Caspersen, E. Shevliakova, B. Moore, G. Kohlmaier, E. Holland, M. Gloor, M. E. Harmon, S. M. Fan, J. L. Sarmiento, C. L. Goodale, D. Schimel, and C. B. Field, 2001: Consistent land- and atmosphere-based U.S. Carbon sink estimates. Science, 292(5525), 2316-2320, doi: 10.1126/science.1057320.

Pan, Y., R. A. Birdsey, J. Fang, R. Houghton, P. E. Kauppi, W. A. Kurz, O. L. Phillips, A. Shvidenko, S. L. Lewis, J. G. Canadell, P. Ciais, R. B. Jackson, S. W. Pacala, A. D. McGuire, S. Piao, A. Rautiainen, S. Sitch, and D. Hayes, 2011: A large and persistent carbon sink in the world’s forests. Science, 333(6045), 988-993, doi: 10.1126/science.1201609.

Peters, W., A. R. Jacobson, C. Sweeney, A. E. Andrews, T. J. Conway, K. Masarie, J. B. Miller, L. M. Bruhwiler, G. Petron, A. I. Hirsch, D. E. Worthy, G. R. van der Werf, J. T. Randerson, P. O. Wennberg, M. C. Krol, and P. P. Tans, 2007: An atmospheric perspective on North American carbon dioxide exchange: CarbonTracker. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 104(48), 18925-18930, doi: 10.1073/pnas.0708986104.

Petrescu, A. M. R., L. P. H. van Beek, J. van Huissteden, C. Prigent, T. Sachs, C. A. R. Corradi, F. J. W. Parmentier, and A. J. Dolman, 2010: Modeling regional to global CH4 emissions of boreal and Arctic wetlands. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 24(4), doi: 10.1029/2009gb003610.

Poulter, B., D. Frank, P. Ciais, R. B. Myneni, N. Andela, J. Bi, G. Broquet, J. G. Canadell, F. Chevallier, Y. Y. Liu, S. W. Running, S. Sitch, and G. R. van der Werf, 2014: Contribution of semi-arid ecosystems to interannual variability of the global carbon cycle. Nature, 509(7502), 600-603, doi: 10.1038/nature13376.

Rayner, P. J., M. R. Raupach, M. Paget, P. Peylin, and E. Koffi, 2010: A new global gridded data set of CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion: Methodology and evaluation. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 115(D19), doi: 10.1029/2009JD013439.

Reimer, J. J., R. Vargas, S. V. Smith, R. Lara-Lara, G. ­Gaxiola-Castro, J. Martín Hernández-Ayón, A. Castro, M. Escoto-Rodriguez, and J. Martínez-Osuna, 2013: Air-sea CO2 fluxes in the near-shore and intertidal zones influenced by the California current. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 118(10), 4795-4810, doi: 10.1002/jgrc.20319.

Rigby, M., R. G. Prinn, P. J. Fraser, P. G. Simmonds, R. L. Langenfelds, J. Huang, D. M. Cunnold, L. P. Steele, P. B. Krummel, R. F. Weiss, S. O’Doherty, P. K. Salameh, H. J. Wang, C. M. Harth, J. Mühle, and L. W. Porter, 2008: Renewed growth of atmospheric methane. Geophysical Research Letters, 35(22), doi: 10.1029/2008gl036037.

Saunois, M., P. Bousquet, B. Poulter, A. Peregon, P. Ciais, J. G. Canadell, E. J. Dlugokencky, G. Etiope, D. Bastviken, S. Houweling, G. Janssens-Maenhout, F. N. Tubiello, S. Castaldi, R. B. Jackson, M. Alexe, V. K. Arora, D. J. Beerling, P. Bergamaschi, D. R. Blake, G. Brailsford, V. Brovkin, L. Bruhwiler, C. Crevoisier, P. Crill, K. Covey, C. Curry, C. Frankenberg, N. Gedney, L. Höglund-Isaksson, M. Ishizawa, A. Ito, F. Joos, H.-S. Kim, T. Kleinen, P. Krummel, J.-F. Lamarque, R. Langenfelds, R. Locatelli, T. Machida, S. Maksyutov, K. C. McDonald, J. Marshall, J. R. Melton, I. Morino, V. Naik, S. Doherty, F.-J. W. Parmentier, P. K. Patra, C. Peng, S. Peng, G. P. Peters, I. Pison, C. Prigent, R. Prinn, M. Ramonet, W. J. Riley, M. Saito, M. Santini, R. Schroeder, I. J. Simpson, R. Spahni, P. Steele, A. Takizawa, B. F. Thornton, H. Tian, Y. Tohjima, N. Viovy, A. Voulgarakis, M. van Weele, G. R. van der Werf, R. Weiss, C. Wiedinmyer, D. J. Wilton, A. Wiltshire, D. Worthy, D. Wunch, X. Xu, Y. Yoshida, B. Zhang, Z. Zhang, and Q. Zhu, 2016: The global methane budget 2000–2012. Earth System Science Data, 8(2), 697-751, doi: 10.5194/essd-8-697-2016.

Schaefer, H., S. E. Mikaloff Fletcher, C. Veidt, K. R. Lassey, G. W. Brailsford, T. M. Bromley, E. J. Dlugokencky, S. E. Michel, J. B. Miller, I. Levin, D. C. Lowe, R. J. Martin, B. H. Vaughn, and J. W. White, 2016: A 21st-century shift from fossil-fuel to biogenic methane emissions indicated by 13CH4. Science, 352(6281), 80-84, doi: 10.1126/science.aad2705.

Schuh, A. E., T. Lauvaux, T. O. West, A. S. Denning, K. J. Davis, N. Miles, S. Richardson, M. Uliasz, E. Lokupitiya, D. Cooley, and A. Andrews, 2013: Evaluating atmospheric CO2 inversions at multiple scales over a highly inventoried agricultural landscape. Global Change Biology, 19(5), 1424-1439.

Schuur, E. A. G., A. D. McGuire, C. Schädel, G. Grosse, J. W. Harden, D. J. Hayes, G. Hugelius, C. D. Koven, P. Kuhry, D. M. Lawrence, S. M. Natali, D. Olefeldt, V. E. Romanovsky, K. Schaefer, M. R. Turetsky, C. C. Treat, and J. E. Vonk, 2015: Climate change and the permafrost carbon feedback. Nature, 520(7546), 171-179, doi: 10.1038/nature14338.

Schwalm, C.R., C.A. Williams, K. Schaefer, D. Baldocchi, T.A. Black, A.H. Goldstein, B.E. Law, W.C. Oechel, and R.L. Scott, 2012: Reduction in carbon uptake during turn of the century drought in western North America. Nature Geoscience, 5(8), 551.

Schwalm, C. R., C. A. Williams, K. Schaefer, R. Anderson, M. A. Arain, I. Baker, A. Barr, T. A. Black, G. Chen, J. M. Chen, P. Ciais, K. J. Davis, A. Desai, M. Dietze, D. Dragoni, M. L. Fischer, L. B. Flanagan, R. Grant, L. Gu, D. Hollinger, R. C. Izaurralde, C. Kucharik, P. Lafleur, B. E. Law, L. Li, Z. Li, S. Liu, E. Lokupitiya, Y. Luo, S. Ma, H. Margolis, R. Matamala, H. McCaughey, R. K. Monson, W. C. Oechel, C. Peng, B. Poulter, D. T. Price, D. M. Riciutto, W. Riley, A. K. Sahoo, M. Sprintsin, J. Sun, H. Tian, C. Tonitto, H. Verbeeck, and S. B. Verma, 2010: A model-data intercomparison of CO2 exchange across North America: Results from the North American carbon program site synthesis. Journal of Geophysical Research, 115, G00H05, p. 22, doi: 10.1029/2009jg001229.

Sheng, J.-X., D. J. Jacob, J. D. Maasakkers, M. P. Sulprizio, D. Zavala-Araiza, and S. P. Hamburg, 2017: A high-resolution (0.1° × 0.1°) inventory of methane emissions from Canadian and Mexican oil and gas systems. Atmospheric Environment, 158, 211-215, doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.02.036.

Smith, J. E., L. S. Heath, and M. C. Nichols, 2010: U.S. Forest Carbon Calculation Tool: Forestland Carbon Stocks and Net Annual Stock Change. Revised for use with FIADB4.0. USDA Forest Service Northern Research Station. NRS GTR-13.

Stephens, B. B., K. R. Gurney, P. P. Tans, C. Sweeney, W. Peters, L. Bruhwiler, P. Ciais, M. Ramonet, P. Bousquet, T. Nakazawa, S. Aoki, T. Machida, G. Inoue, N. Vinnichenko, J. Lloyd, A. Jordan, M. Heimann, O. Shibistova, R. L. Langenfelds, L. P. Steele, R. J. Francey, and A. S. Denning, 2007: Weak northern and strong tropical land carbon uptake from vertical profiles of atmospheric CO2. Science, 316(5832), 1732-1735, doi: 10.1126/science.1137004.

Stinson, G., W. A. Kurz, C. E. Smyth, E. T. Neilson, C. C. Dymond, J. M. Metsaranta, C. Boisvenue, G. J. Rampley, Q. Li, T. M. White, and D. Blain, 2011: An inventory-based analysis of Canada’s managed forest carbon dynamics, 1990 to 2008. Global Change Biology, 17(6), 2227-2244, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02369.x.

Sweeney, C., E. Dlugokencky, C. E. Miller, S. Wofsy, A. Karion, S. Dinardo, R. Y. W. Chang, J. B. Miller, L. Bruhwiler, A. M. Crotwell, T. Newberger, K. McKain, R. S. Stone, S. E. Wolter, P. E. Lang, and P. Tans, 2016: No significant increase in long-term CH4 emissions on North Slope of Alaska despite significant increase in air temperature. Geophysical Research Letters, 43(12), 6604-6611, doi: 10.1002/2016GL069292.

Tarnocai, C., C.-L. Ping, and J. Kimble, 2007: Carbon cycles in the permafrost region of North America. In: First State of the Carbon Cycle Report (SOCCR): The North American carbon budget and implications for the global carbon cycle. A report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [A. W. King, L. Dilling, G.P. Zimmerman, D.M. Fairman, R.A. Houghton, G. Marland, A. Z. Rose, and T. J. Wilbanks (eds.)]. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC, USA, pp. 127-138.

Tarnocai, C., J. G. Canadell, E. A. G. Schuur, P. Kuhry, G. Mazhitova, and S. Zimov, 2009: Soil organic carbon pools in the northern circumpolar permafrost region. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 23(2), doi: 10.1029/2008GB003327.

Tian, H., G. Chen, C. Lu, X. Xu, D. J. Hayes, W. Ren, S. Pan, D. N. Huntzinger, and S. C. Wofsy, 2015: North American terrestrial CO2 uptake largely offset by CH4 and N2O emissions: Toward a full accounting of the greenhouse gas budget. Climatic Change, 129(3-4), 413-426, doi: 10.1007/s10584-014-1072-9.

Tian, H., C. Lu, P. Ciais, A. M. Michalak, J. G. Canadell, E. Saikawa, D. N. Huntzinger, K. R. Gurney, S. Sitch, B. Zhang, J. Yang, P. Bousquet, L. Bruhwiler, G. Chen, E. Dlugokencky, P. Friedlingstein, J. Melillo, S. Pan, B. Poulter, R. Prinn, M. Saunois, C. R. Schwalm, and S. C. Wofsy, 2016: The terrestrial biosphere as a net source of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Nature, 531(7593), 225-228, doi: 10.1038/nature16946.

Turetsky, M. R., B. Benscoter, S. Page, G. Rein, G. R. van der Werf, and A. Watts, 2014: Global vulnerability of peatlands to fire and carbon loss. Nature Geoscience, 8(1), 11-14, doi: 10.1038/ngeo2325.

Turner, A. J., D. J. Jacob, J. Benmergui, S. C. Wofsy, J. D. Maasakkers, A. Butz, O. Hasekamp, and S. C. Biraud, 2016a: A large increase in U.S. Methane emissions over the past decade inferred from satellite data and surface observations. Geophysical Research Letters, 43(5), 2218-2224, doi: 10.1002/2016GL067987.

Turner, D. P., W. D. Ritts, R. E. Kennedy, A. N. Gray, and Z. Q. Yang, 2016b: Regional carbon cycle responses to 25 years of variation in climate and disturbance in the U.S. Pacific Northwest. Regional Environmental Change, 16(8), 2345-2355, doi: 10.1007/s10113-016-0956-9.

Turner, D. P., M. Göckede, B. E. Law, W. D. Ritts, W. B. Cohen, Z. Yang, T. Hudiburg, R. Kennedy, and M. Duane, 2011: Multiple constraint analysis of regional land-surface carbon flux. Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology, 63(2), 207-221, doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0889.2011.00525.x.

Vargas, R., H. W. Loescher, T. Arredondo, E. Huber-Sannwald, R. Lara-Lara, and E. A. Yépez, 2012: Opportunities for advancing carbon cycle science in Mexico: Toward a continental scale understanding. Environmental Science & Policy, 21, 84-93, doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2012.04.003.

Vargas, R., D. Alcaraz-Segura, R. Birdsey, N. A. Brunsell, C. O. Cruz-Gaistardo, B. de Jong, J. Etchevers, M. Guevara, D. J. Hayes, K. Johnson, H. W. Loescher, F. Paz, Y. Ryu, Z. Sanchez-Mejia, and K. P. Toledo-Gutierrez, 2017: Enhancing interoperability to facilitate implementation of REDD+: Case study of Mexico. Carbon Management, 8(1), 57-65, doi: 10.1080/17583004.2017.1285177.

Warner, D. L., S. Villarreal, K. McWilliams, S. Inamdar, and R. Vargas, 2017: Carbon dioxide and methane fluxes from tree stems, coarse woody debris, and soils in an upland temperate forest. Ecosystems, 20(6), 1205-1216, doi: 10.1007/s10021-016-0106-8.

Wei, Y., D. J. Hayes, M. M. Thornton, W. M. Post, R. B. Cook, P. E. Thornton, A. Jacobson, D. N. Huntzinger, T. O. West, L. S. Heath, B. McConkey, G. Stinson, W. Kurz, B. de Jong, I. Baker, J. Chen, F. Chevallier, F. Hoffman, A. Jain, R. Lokupitiya, D. A. McGuire, A. Michalak, G. G. Moisen, R. P. Neilson, P. Peylin, C. Potter, B. Poulter, D. Price, J. Randerson, C. Rodenbeck, H. Tian, E. Tomelleri, G. van der Werf, N. Viovy, J. Xiao, N. Zeng, and M. Zhao, 2013: NACP Regional: National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and Aggregated Gridded Model Data. Oak Ridge National Laboratory Distributed Active Archive Center. [URL]

West, T. O., C. C. Brandt, L. M. Baskaran, C. M. Hellwinckel, R. Mueller, C. J. Bernacchi, V. Bandaru, B. Yang, B. S. Wilson, G. Marland, R. G. Nelson, D. G. D. L. T. Ugarte, and W. M. Post, 2010: Cropland carbon fluxes in the United States: Increasing geospatial resolution of inventory-based carbon accounting. Ecological Applications, 20(4), 1074-1086, doi: 10.1890/08-2352.1.

Williams, C. A., G. J. Collatz, J. Masek, and S. N. Goward, 2012: Carbon consequences of forest disturbance and recovery across the conterminous United States. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 26(1), doi: 10.1029/2010gb003947.

Williams, C. A., G. J. Collatz, J. Masek, C. Q. Huang, and S. N. Goward, 2014: Impacts of disturbance history on forest carbon stocks and fluxes: Merging satellite disturbance mapping with forest inventory data in a carbon cycle model framework. Remote Sensing of Environment, 151, 57-71, doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2013.10.034.

Wofsy, S. C., R. C. Harriss, and W. A. Kaplan, 1988: Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere over the Amazon Basin. Journal of Geophysical Research, 93(D2), 1377, doi: 10.1029/JD093iD02p01377.

Woodall, C. W., G. M. Domke, J. E. Smith, and J. W. Coulston, 2016: Forest land category sections of the land use, land use change, and forestry chapter, and annex. In: Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2014. EPA 430-R-16-002, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Woodall, C. W., J. W. Coulston, G. M. Domke, B. F. Walters, D. N. Wear, J. E. Smith, H. E. Andersen, B. J. Clough, W. B. Cohen, D. M. Griffith, and Hagen, S. C., 2015: The US Forest Carbon Accounting Framework: Stocks and Stock Change 1990-2016, 49 pp.

Xiao, J., S. V. Ollinger, S. Frolking, G. C. Hurtt, D. Y. Hollinger, K. J. Davis, Y. Pan, X. Zhang, F. Deng, J. Chen, D. D. Baldocchi, B. E. Law, M. A. Arain, A. R. Desai, A. D. Richardson, G. Sun, B. Amiro, H. Margolis, L. Gu, R. L. Scott, P. D. Blanken, and A. E. Suyker, 2014: Data-driven diagnostics of terrestrial carbon dynamics over North America. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 197, 142-157, doi: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2014.06.013.

Zhou, D., S. Liu, J. Oeding, and S. Zhao, 2013: Forest cutting and impacts on carbon in the Eastern United States. Scientific Reports, 3, 3547, doi: 10.1038/srep03547.

Zhu, Z., and B. Reed, 2012: Baseline and Projected Future Carbon Storage and Greenhouse-Gas Fluxes in Ecosystems of the Western United States. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1797, 192 pp.

Zhu, Z., and B. C. Reed, 2014: Baseline and Projected Future Carbon Storage and Greenhouse-Gas Fluxes in Ecosystems of the Eastern United States. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1804, 204 pp.

Zhu, Z., M. Bouchard, and D. Butman, 2011: Baseline and Projected Future Carbon Storage and Greenhouse-Gas Fluxes in the Great Plains Region of the United States. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1787, 28 pp.


  1. Carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e): Amount of CO2 that would produce the same effect on the radiative balance of Earth’s climate system as another greenhouse gas, such as methane (CH4) or nitrous oxide (N2O), on a 100-year timescale. For comparison to units of carbon, each kg CO2e is equivalent to 0.273 kg C (0.273 = 1/3.67). See Preface for details.


See Full Chapter & References