<b>Windham-Myers</b>, L., W.-J. <b>Cai</b>, S. R. Alin, A. Andersson, J. Crosswell, K. H. Dunton, J. M. Hernandez-Ayon, M. Herrmann, A. L. Hinson, C. S. Hopkinson, J. Howard, X. Hu, S. H. Knox, K. Kroeger, D. Lagomasino, P. Megonigal, R. G. Najjar, M.-L. Paulsen, D. Peteet, E. Pidgeon, K. V. R. Schäfer, M. Tzortziou, Z. A. Wang, and E. B. Watson, 2018: Chapter 15: Tidal wetlands and estuaries. In Second State of the Carbon Cycle Report (SOCCR2): A Sustained Assessment Report [Cavallaro, N., G. Shrestha, R. Birdsey, M. A. Mayes, R. G. Najjar, S. C. Reed, P. Romero-Lankao, and Z. Zhu (eds.)]. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 596-648, https://doi.org/10.7930/SOCCR2.2018.Ch15.
Tidal Wetlands and Estuaries
Table 15A.1. Summary of North American Carbon Dioxide Exchange Between Tidal Wetlands and the Atmosphere (Net Ecosystem Exchangea) from Continuous Measurementsb
System Name and Type | Location | EC/SC | Year | NEE (g C per m2 per year) | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pacific Coast | |||||
Rush Ranch, Suisun Bay, brackish marsh | California | EC | 2014–2015 | 14 | Bergamaschi and Windham-Myers (2018) |
2015–2016 | –190 | ||||
2016–2017 | –222 | ||||
Atlantic Coast | |||||
Plum Island, salt marsh | Massachusetts | EC | 2012 | –255.6 | Forbrich and Giblin (2015) |
2013 | –336.0 | ||||
2014 | –279.6 | ||||
Waquoit Bay, salt marsh | Massachusetts | SC | 2015 | –160.0 | Moseman-Valtierra et al. (2016) |
Hudson-Raritan Estuary, restored salt marsh | New Jersey | EC | 2009 | 984c | Schäfer et al. (2014) |
2011 | –64.8 | ||||
2012 | –309.6 | ||||
Hudson-Raritan Estuary, restored salt marsh | New Jersey | EC | 2011–2012 | –213.6 | Artigas et al. (2015) |
Delaware Bay, tidal fresh marsh | New Jersey | SC | 2007 | –256.8 | Weston et al. (2014) |
2008 | 61.2 | ||||
Delaware Bay, oligohaline marsh | New Jersey | SC | 2007 | 93.6 | Weston et al. (2014) |
2008 | –45.6 | ||||
Delaware Bay, mesohaline marsh | New Jersey | SC | 2007 | –115.2 | Weston et al. (2014) |
2008 | –171.6 | ||||
Fowling Point, salt marsh | Virginia | SC | 2007 | –129.6 | Kathilankal et al. (2008) |
Springfield Creek, tidal fresh marsh | South Carolina | SC | 2009 | –295.2 | Neubauer et al. (2013) |
Gulf of Mexico | |||||
Pointe-aux-Chenes, brackish marsh | Louisiana | EC | 2011 | –337.2 | Holm et al. (2016) |
Salvador, tidal fresh marsh | Louisiana | EC | 2011 | 170.4 | Holm et al. (2016) |
Florida Bay, mangrove | Florida | EC | 2004 | –1172.4 | Barr et al. (2010); Barr et al. (2012) |
2005 | –1176 | ||||
2007 | –823.2 | ||||
2008 | –806.4 | ||||
2009 | –926.4 | ||||
Mobile Bay, tidal fresh marsh | Alabama | SC | 2011 | 893.4 | Wilson et al. (2015) |
Mobile Bay, brackish marsh | Alabama | SC | 2011 | 517.8 | Wilson et al. (2015) |
Mobile Bay, salt marsh | Alabama | SC | 2011 | 410.2 | Wilson et al. (2015) |
Notes
a NEE, Net ecosystem exchange; g C, grams of carbon.
b Continuous measurements: eddy covariance (EC) or static chamber (SC). Positive values = atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) source. Negative values = atmospheric CO2 sink. Annual estimate (mean) provided.
c Mudflat habitat (very little data available in literature).
Table 15A.2. Tidal Wetland Methane Flux by Discrete Static Chamber Data or Continuous Eddy Covariancea Data
Site Name | Location | Year | EC/SC | Salinity (PSUb) | CH4 Flux (g C per m2 per year)c | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Atlantic Coast | ||||||
Upland edge High marsh Middle marsh Low marsh |
New Brunswick | 1993 | SC |
23.5 31.6 33.7 35.1 |
1.0 0.2 0.2 0.2 |
Magenheimer et al. (1996) |
Dipper Harbour Kouchibouguac |
New Brunswick | 2011–2012 | SC |
23.7 13.7 |
0.1 0.0 | Chmura et al. (2016) |
Creek Bank High marsh Short Spartina |
Virginia | 1981–1983 | SC |
18.7 22.6 26.3 |
0.9 0.3 1.0 |
Bartlett et al. (1985) |
Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 |
Virginia |
1983–1984 1983–1984 1983–1984 |
SC SC SC |
5.1 12.8 16.6 |
13.7 16.8 4.2 |
Bartlett et al. (1987) |
Sweet Hall | Virginia | 1996–1997 | SC | 0.25 | 72.0 | Neubauer et al.s (2000) |
C3 Ambient CO2 C4 Ambient CO2 |
Maryland Maryland |
1998–1999 1998–1999 |
SC SC |
6.8 6.8 |
3.5 2.5 |
Marsh et al. (2005) |
Tidal freshwater marsh Oligohaline marsh Mesohaline marsh |
Delaware |
2007 2008 2007 2008 2007 2008 |
SC |
0.25 0.25 2.5 2.5 10 10 |
20.0 24.0 123.0 87.0 –5.0 –2.0 |
Weston et al. (2014) |
Wildlife Barbados |
Maryland Maryland |
2008 2008 |
SC SC |
11.6 12.9 |
23.0 24.0 |
Poffenbarger et al. (2011) |
Vegetated low marsh Mud flat |
New Jersey |
2012 2012 |
SC SC |
5 5 |
4.3 3.8 |
Reid et al., (2013) |
Fox Creek Marsh Kirkpatrick Marsh |
Maryland | 2013–2014 | SC |
10 10 10 10 10 10 |
79.1 3.9 0.8 10.1 3.4 2.3 |
Mueller et al. (2016) |
GI Near Bank GI Far Bank UF Near Bank UF Far Bank |
North Carolina | 1990–1991 | SC |
0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 |
6.2 4.3 3.8 2.6 |
Kelley et al. (1995) |
Lower site Upper site | North Carolina | 1994–1995 | SC |
0.25 0.25 |
1.0 1.4 | `
Megonigal and Schlesinger (2002) |
Upper Middle Lower |
Georgia Georgia Georgia |
2006–2007 2006–2007 2006–2007 |
SC SC SC |
0.2 1.3 4.7 |
0.8 1.0 1.0 |
Krass and Whitbeck (2011) |
Georgia Coastal Ecosystems LTERd | Georgia | 2008–2009 | SC | 1 | 69.8 | Segarra et al. (2013) |
Brookgreen Gardens | South Carolina | 2009 | SC | 0.05 | 42.0 | Neubauer et al. (2013) |
Gulf of Mexico | ||||||
Fresh Brackish Salt Marsh |
Louisiana | 1980–1981 | SC |
0.4 1.8 18.1 |
160.0 73.0 4.3 |
DeLaune et al. (1983) |
Brackish marsh Freshwater marsh |
Louisiana |
2012 2012 2013 |
EC EC EC |
9.15 0.23 0.23 |
10.4 47.3 46.2 |
Holm et al. (2016) |
Brackish marsh Freshwater marsh |
Louisiana | 2012–2013 |
EC SC EC SC |
9.15 9.15 0.23 0.23 |
11.1 49.6 47.1 91.9 |
Krauss et al. (2016) |
Week’s Bay Dog River Dauphin Island |
Alabama | 2012–2013 | SC |
2.3 4.7 20.7 |
7.9 3.9 4.3 |
Wilson et al. (2015) |
Notes
a CH4, methane; CO2, carbon dioxide; SC, static chamber; EC, eddy covariance; g C, grams of carbon.
b Salinity values in bold indicate porewater salinity; otherwise, channel salinity is reported (where PSU = practical salinity units). When salinity was not reported for tidal freshwater wetlands, a value of 0.25 was assigned, which represents the midpoint of their salinity range (0 to 0.5) by definition.
c Positive values = atmospheric CH4 source. Negative values = atmospheric CH4 sink. Annual estimate provided.
d LTER, Long-term ecological research.
Table 15A.3. Estuarine Carbon Dioxide Outgassing (Emissions) for the U.S. Pacific Coast, Atlantic Coast,a and Gulf of Mexico Regionsb,c
System Name | Location | Subregion | Source | CO2 Flux (g C per m2 per year)c | CO2 Flux Integral (Tg C per year) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pacific Coast: Northwest | |||||
Columbia River | Oregon, WA | Northwest | Evans et al. (2012) | 12 | NAd |
Atlantic Coast: Gulf of Maine (GOM) Subregiona | |||||
Bellamy Estuary | Massachusetts, USA | GOM | Hunt et al. (2011) | 55 | |
Cocheco Estuary | Massachusetts, USA | GOM | Hunt et al. (2011) | 44 | |
Great Bay | Massachusetts, USA | GOM | Hunt et al. (2011) | 43 | |
Kennebec Estuary | Massachusetts, USA | GOM | Hunt et al. (2014) | 30 | |
Little Bay | Massachusetts, USA | GOM | Hunt et al. (2011) | 48 | |
Oyster Estuary | Massachusetts, USA | GOM | Hunt et al. (2011) | 48 | |
Parker River | Massachusetts, USA | GOM | Raymond and Hopkinson (2003) | 13 | |
Mean | 40 | 0.22 | |||
Standard error | 5 | 0.03 | |||
Atlantic Coast: Mid-Atlantic Bight (MAB) Subregiona | |||||
Delaware River | Delaware/ New Jersey, USA | MAB | Joesoef et al. (2015) | 29 | |
York River | Virginia, USA | MAB | Raymond et al. (2000) | 67 | |
Mean | 48 | 1.0 | |||
Standard error | 19 | 0.4 | |||
Atlantic Coast: South Atlantic Bight (SAB) Subregiona | |||||
Altamaha Sound | Georgia, USA | SAB | Jiang et al. (2008) | 322 | |
Doboy Sound | Georgia, USA | SAB | Jiang et al. (2008) | 143 | |
Duplin River | Georgia, USA | SAB | Wang and Cai (2004) | 256 | |
Neuse River | N. Carolina, USA | SAB | Crosswell et al. (2012); Crosswell et al. (2014) | –68 | |
Pamlico Sound | N. Carolina, USA | SAB | Crosswell et al. (2014) | –180 | |
Sapelo Sound | Georgia, USA | SAB | Jiang et al. (2008) | 126 | |
Satilla River | Georgia, USA | SAB | Cai and Wang (1998) | 510 | |
Mean | 158 | 1.9 | |||
Standard error | 88 | 1.1 | |||
Atlantic Coast Totals | |||||
Mean | 82 | 3.1 | |||
Standard error | 30 | 1.1 | |||
Gulf of Mexico (GMx) | |||||
Atchafalaya River | Louisiana, USA | GMx | Huang et al. (2015) | 504 | |
Florida Bay | Florida, USA | GMx | Zhang and Fischer (2014) | 47 | |
Mission-Aransas Estuary | Texas, USA | GMx | Yao and Hu (2017) | 149 | |
Mississippi River | Louisiana, USA | GMx | Huang et al. (2015) | 444 | |
Shark River | Florida, USA | GMx | Kone and Borges (2008) | 192 | |
Terrebonne Bay | Louisiana, USA | GMx | Huang et al. (2015) | –4 | |
Mean | 222 | 6.8 | |||
Standard error | 85 | 2.6 | |||
Atlantic Coast and Gulf of Mexico Totals | |||||
Mean | 9.9 | ||||
Standard error | 2.8 |
Notes
a The Atlantic Coast is subdivided into three subregions: Gulf of Maine, Mid-Atlantic Bight, and South Atlantic Bight.
b Positive values = atmospheric CO2 source; negative values = atmospheric CO2 sink. A spatially representative annual CO2 flux integral is not calculated for the Pacific Coast due to the presence of only one study and limited seasonal sampling.
c CO2, carbon dioxide; g C, grams of carbon; Tg C, teragrams of carbon.
d NA (or blank): Not assessed.
See Full Chapter & References