Lead Author:
Elise Pendall, Western Sydney University
Contributing Authors:
Dominique Bachelet, Oregon State University
Richard T. Conant, Colorado State University
Bassil El Masri, Murray State University
Lawrence B. Flanagan, University of Lethbridge
Alan K. Knapp, Colorado State University
Jinxun Liu, U.S. Geological Survey
Shuguang Liu, Central South University of Forestry and Technology
Sean M. Schaeffer, University of Tennessee
Science Lead:
Sasha C. Reed, U.S. Geological Survey
Review Editor:
Rachel Melnick, USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture
Federal Liaisons:
Nancy Cavallaro, USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture
Anne Marsh, USDA Forest Service

<b>Pendall</b>, E., D. Bachelet, R. T. Conant, B. El Masri, L. B. Flanagan, A. K. Knapp, J. Liu, S. Liu, and S. M. Schaeffer, 2018: Chapter 10: Grasslands. In Second State of the Carbon Cycle Report (SOCCR2): A Sustained Assessment Report [Cavallaro, N., G. Shrestha, R. Birdsey, M. A. Mayes, R. G. Najjar, S. C. Reed, P. Romero-Lankao, and Z. Zhu (eds.)]. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 399-427, https://doi.org/10.7930/SOCCR2.2018.Ch10.

Grasslands

REFERENCES

Ahlering, M., J. Fargione, and W. Parton, 2016: Potential carbon dioxide emission reductions from avoided grassland conversion in the northern great plains. Ecosphere, 7(12), doi: 10.1002/ecs2.1625.

Archer, S. R., T. Boutton, and K. Hibbard, 2001: Trees in grasslands: Biogeochemical consequences of woody plant expansion. In: Global Biogeochemical Cycles in the Climate System, [E. D. Schulze (ed.)]. Academic Press, pp. 115-138.

Bachelet, D., K. Ferschweiler, T. Sheehan, B. Baker, B. Sleeter, and Z. Zhu, 2017: Human footprint affects U.S. carbon balance more than climate change. Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.09770-0.

Barger, N. N., S. R. Archer, J. L. Campbell, C. Y. Huang, J. A. Morton, and A. K. Knapp, 2011: Woody plant proliferation in North American drylands: A synthesis of impacts on ecosystem carbon balance. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 116, 17, doi: 10.1029/2010jg001506.

Biederman, J. A., R. L. Scott, M. L. Goulden, R. Vargas, M. E. Litvak, T. E. Kolb, E. A. Yepez, W. C. Oechel, P. D. Blanken, T. W. Bell, J. Garatuza-Payan, G. E. Maurer, S. Dore, and S. P. Burns, 2016: Terrestrial carbon balance in a drier world: The effects of water availability in southwestern North America. Global Change Biology, 22(5), 1867-1879, doi: 10.1111/gcb.13222.

Blumenthal, D. M., J. A. Kray, W. Ortmans, L. H. Ziska, and E. Pendall, 2016: Cheatgrass is favored by warming but not CO2 enrichment in a semi-arid grassland. Global Change Biology, 22(9), 3026-3038, doi: 10.1111/gcb.13278.

Burke, I. C., C. M. Yonker, W. J. Parton, C. V. Cole, D. S. Schimel, and K. Flach, 1989: Texture, climate, and cultivation effects on soil organic matter content in U.S. grassland soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 53(3), 800, doi: 10.2136/sssaj1989.03615995005300030029x.

Carney, K. M., B. A. Hungate, B. G. Drake, and J. P. Megonigal, 2007: Altered soil microbial community at elevated CO2 leads to loss of soil carbon. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 104(12), 4990-4995, doi: 10.1073/pnas.0610045104.

Chambers, A., R. Lal, and K. Paustian, 2016: Soil carbon sequestration potential of U.S. croplands and grasslands: Implementing the 4 per thousand initiative. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 71(3), 68A-74A, doi: 10.2489/jswc.71.3.68A.

Chapin, F. S., G. M. Woodwell, J. T. Randerson, E. B. Rastetter, G. M. Lovett, D. D. Baldocchi, D. A. Clark, M. E. Harmon, D. S. Schimel, R. Valentini, C. Wirth, J. D. Aber, J. J. Cole, M. L. Goulden, J. W. Harden, M. Heimann, R. W. Howarth, P. A. Matson, A. D. McGuire, J. M. Melillo, H. A. Mooney, J. C. Neff, R. A. Houghton, M. L. Pace, M. G. Ryan, S. W. Running, O. E. Sala, W. H. Schlesinger, and E. D. Schulze, 2006: Reconciling carbon-cycle concepts, terminology, and methods. Ecosystems, 9(7), 1041-1050, doi: 10.1007/s10021-005-0105-7.

Cherwin, K., and A. Knapp, 2012: Unexpected patterns of sensitivity to drought in three semi-arid grasslands. Oecologia, 169(3), 845-852, doi: 10.1007/s00442-011-2235-2.

Conant, R. T., and K. Paustian, 2004: Grassland management activity data: Current sources and future needs. Environmental Management, 33(4), 467-473, doi: 10.1007/s00267-003-9104-7.

Conant, R. T., K. Paustian, and E. T. Elliott, 2001: Grassland management and conversion into grassland: Effects on soil carbon. Ecological Applications, 11(2), 343-355, doi: 10.1890/1051-0761(2001)011[0343:Gmacig]2.0.Co;2.

Conant, R. T., C. E. Cerri, B. B. Osborne, and K. Paustian, 2017: Grassland management impacts on soil carbon stocks: A new synthesis. Ecological Applications, 27(2), 662-668, doi: 10.1002/eap.1473.

Crowther, T. W., K. E. Todd-Brown, C. W. Rowe, W. R. Wieder, J. C. Carey, M. B. Machmuller, B. L. Snoek, S. Fang, G. Zhou, S. D. Allison, J. M. Blair, S. D. Bridgham, A. J. Burton, Y. Carrillo, P. B. Reich, J. S. Clark, A. T. Classen, F. A. Dijkstra, B. Elberling, B. A. Emmett, M. Estiarte, S. D. Frey, J. Guo, J. Harte, L. Jiang, B. R. Johnson, G. Kroel-Dulay, K. S. Larsen, H. Laudon, J. M. Lavallee, Y. Luo, M. Lupascu, L. N. Ma, S. Marhan, A. Michelsen, J. Mohan, S. Niu, E. Pendall, J. Penuelas, L. Pfeifer-Meister, C. Poll, S. Reinsch, L. L. Reynolds, I. K. Schmidt, S. Sistla, N. W. Sokol, P. H. Templer, K. K. Treseder, J. M. Welker, and M. A. Bradford, 2016: Quantifying global soil carbon losses in response to warming. Nature, 540(7631), 104-108, doi: 10.1038/nature20150.

Davidson, E. A., and I. A. Janssens, 2006: Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition and feedbacks to climate change. Nature, 440(7081), 165-173, doi: 10.1038/nature04514.

Dieleman, W. I., S. Vicca, F. A. Dijkstra, F. Hagedorn, M. J. Hovenden, K. S. Larsen, J. A. Morgan, A. Volder, C. Beier, J. S. Dukes, J. King, S. Leuzinger, S. Linder, Y. Luo, R. Oren, P. De Angelis, D. Tingey, M. R. Hoosbeek, and I. A. Janssens, 2012: Simple additive effects are rare: A quantitative review of plant biomass and soil process responses to combined manipulations of CO2 and temperature. Global Change Biiology, 18(9), 2681-2693, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02745.x.

Eagle, A. J., and L. P. Olander, 2012: Greenhouse gas mitigation with agricultural land management activities in the United States—a side-by-side comparison of biophysical potential. Advances in Agronomy, 115, 79-179, doi: 10.1016/b978-0-12-394276-0.00003-2.

Fischer, E. M., and R. Knutti, 2014: Detection of spatially aggregated changes in temperature and precipitation extremes. Geophysical Research Letters, 41(2), 547-554, doi: 10.1002/2013gl058499.

Flanagan, L. B., and A. C. Adkinson, 2011: Interacting controls on productivity in a northern Great Plains grassland and implications for response to ENSO events. Global Change Biology, 17(11), 3293-3311, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02461.x.

Follett, R. F., J. M. Kimble, and R. Lal, 2001: The Potential of U.S. Grazing Lands to Sequester Soil Carbon. [R. F. Follett, J. M. Kimble, and R. Lal (eds.)]. CRC Press, 401-430 pp.

Frank, A. B., 2004: Six years of CO2 flux measurements for a moderately grazed mixed-grass prairie. Environmental Management, 33, S426-S431, doi: 10.1007/s00267-003-9150-1.

Goldstein, L. J., and K. N. Suding, 2014: Intra-annual rainfall regime shifts competitive interactions between coastal sage scrub and invasive grasses. Ecology, 95(2), 425-435, doi: 10.1890/12-0651.1.

Gomez-Casanovas, N., T. W. Hudiburg, C. J. Bernacchi, W. J. Parton, and E. H. Delucia, 2016: Nitrogen deposition and greenhouse gas emissions from grasslands: Uncertainties and future directions. Global Change Biology, 22, 1348-1360, doi: 10.1111/gcb.13187.

H.R. 6 — 110th Congress, 2007: Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007. [URL]

Hawbaker, T. J., 2017: Mapping burned areas using dense ­time-series of Landsat data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 198, 504-522, doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2017.06.027.

Hayes, D. J., D. P. Turner, G. Stinson, A. D. McGuire, Y. X. Wei, T. O. West, L. S. Heath, B. Dejong, B. G. McConkey, R. A. Birdsey, W. A. Kurz, A. R. Jacobson, D. N. Huntzinger, Y. D. Pan, W. Mac Post, and R. B. Cook, 2012: Reconciling estimates of the contemporary North American carbon balance among terrestrial biosphere models, atmospheric inversions, and a new approach for estimating net ecosystem exchange from inventory-based data. Global Change Biology, 18(4), 1282-1299, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02627.x.

Heimann, M., and M. Reichstein, 2008: Terrestrial ecosystem carbon dynamics and climate feedbacks. Nature, 451(7176), 289-292, doi: 10.1038/nature06591.

Heisler-White, J. L., A. K. Knapp, and E. F. Kelly, 2008: Increasing precipitation event size increases aboveground net primary production in a semi-arid grassland. Oecologia, 158, 129-140.

Heisler-White, J. L., J. M. Blair, E. F. Kelly, K. Harmoney, and A. K. Knapp, 2009: Contingent productivity responses to more extreme rainfall regimes across a grassland biome. Global Change Biology, 15(12), 2894-2904, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.01961.x.

Henderson, B. B., P. J. Gerber, T. E. Hilinski, A. Falcucci, D. S. Ojima, M. Salvatore, and R. T. Conant, 2015: Greenhouse gas mitigation potential of the world’s grazing lands: Modeling soil carbon and nitrogen fluxes of mitigation practices. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 207, 91-100, doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2015.03.029.

Homer, C., C. Q. Huang, L. M. Yang, B. Wylie, and M. Coan, 2004: Development of a 2001 national land-cover database for the United States. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 70(7), 829-840.

Houghton, R. A., J. L. Hackler, and K. T. Lawrence, 1999: The U.S. carbon budget: Contributions from land-use change. Science, 285(5427), 574-578, doi: 10.1126/science.285.5427.574.

Hufkens, K., T. F. Keenan, L. B. Flanagan, R. L. Scott, C. J. Bernacchi, E. Joo, N. A. Brunsell, J. Verfaillie, and A. D. Richardson, 2016: Productivity of North American grasslands is increased under future climate scenarios despite rising aridity. Nature Climate Change, 6(7), 710-714, doi: 10.1038/nclimate2942.

Hui, D., and R. B. Jackson, 2006: Geographical and interannual variability in biomass partitioning in grassland ecosystems: A synthesis of field data. New Phytologist, 169(1), 85-93, doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01569.x.

Huxman, T. E., M. D. Smith, P. A. Fay, A. K. Knapp, M. R. Shaw, M. E. Loik, S. D. Smith, D. T. Tissue, J. C. Zak, J. F. Weltzin, W. T. Pockman, O. E. Sala, B. M. Haddad, J. Harte, G. W. Koch, S. Schwinning, E. E. Small, and D. G. Williams, 2004: Convergence across biomes to a common rain-use efficiency. Nature, 429(6992), 651-654, doi: 10.1038/nature02561.

Ingram, L. J., P. D. Stahl, G. E. Schuman, J. S. Buyer, G. F. Vance, G. K. Ganjegunte, J. M. Welker, and J. D. Derner, 2008: Grazing impacts on soil carbon and microbial communities in a mixed-grass ecosystem. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 72(4), 939-948, doi: 10.2136/sssaj2007.0038.

IPCC, 2000: IPCC Special Report: Emissions Scenarios. Summary for Policymakers. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. [URL]

IPCC, 2013: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. [T. F. Stocker, D. Qin, G. K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S. K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P. M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY, USA, 1535 pp.

Jackson, R. B., J. L. Banner, E. G. Jobbagy, W. T. Pockman, and D. H. Wall, 2002: Ecosystem carbon loss with woody plant invasion of grasslands. Nature, 418(6898), 623-626, doi: 10.1038/nature00910.

Jackson, R. B., J. Canadell, J. R. Ehleringer, H. A. Mooney, O. E. Sala, and E. D. Schulze, 1996: A global analysis of root distributions for terrestrial biomes. Oecologia, 108(3), 389-411, doi: 10.1007/Bf00333714.

Jobbagy, E. G., and R. B. Jackson, 2000: The vertical distribution of soil organic carbon and its relation to climate and vegetation. Ecological Applications, 10(2), 423-436, doi: 10.2307/2641104.

Jones, R., J. C. Chambers, D. W. Johnson, R. R. Blank, and D. I. Board, 2015: Effect of repeated burning on plant and soil carbon and nitrogen in cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) dominated ecosystems. Plant and Soil, 386(1-2), 47-64, doi: 10.1007/s11104-014-2242-2.

Kim, H., S. Kim, and B. E. Dale, 2009: Biofuels, land use change, and greenhouse gas emissions: Some unexplored variables. Environmental Science and Technology, 43(3), 961-967, doi: 10.1021/es802681k.

Klumpp, K., S. Fontaine, E. Attard, X. Le Roux, G. Gleixner, and J. F. Soussana, 2009: Grazing triggers soil carbon loss by altering plant roots and their control on soil microbial community. Journal of Ecology, 97(5), 876-885, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2745.2009.01549.x.

Knapp, A. K., and M. D. Smith, 2001: Variation among biomes in temporal dynamics of aboveground primary production. Science, 291(5503), 481-484, doi: 10.1126/science.291.5503.481.

Knapp, A. K., J. M. Briggs, and J. K. Koelliker, 2001: Frequency and extent of water limitation to primary production in a mesic temperate grassland. Ecosystems, 4(1), 19-28, doi: 10.1007/s100210000057.

Knapp, A. K., C. J. Carroll, E. M. Denton, K. J. La Pierre, S. L. Collins, and M. D. Smith, 2015: Differential sensitivity to regional-scale drought in six central U.S. grasslands. Oecologia, 177(4), 949-957, doi: 10.1007/s00442-015-3233-6.

Knapp, A. K., J. M. Briggs, S. L. Collins, S. R. Archer, M. S. Bret-Harte, B. E. Ewers, D. P. Peters, D. R. Young, G. R. Shaver, E. Pendall, and M. B. Cleary, 2008a: Shrub encroachment in North American grasslands: Shifts in growth form dominance rapidly alters control of ecosystem carbon inputs. Global Change Biology, 14(3), 615-623, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01512.x.

Knapp, A. K., C. Beier, D. D. Briske, A. T. Classen, Y. Luo, M. Reichstein, M. D. Smith, S. D. Smith, J. E. Bell, P. A. Fay, J. L. Heisler, S. W. Leavitt, R. Sherry, B. Smith, and E. Weng, 2008b: Consequences of more extreme precipitation regimes for terrestrial ecosystems. BioScience, 58(9), 811-821, doi: 10.1641/b580908.

Knutti, R., and J. Sedláček, 2013: Robustness and uncertainties in the new CMIP5 climate model projections. Nature Climate Change, 3, 369-373.

Kulmatiski, A., and K. H. Beard, 2013: Woody plant encroachment facilitated by increased precipitation intensity. Nature Climate Change, 3(9), 833-837, doi: 10.1038/Nclimate1904.

Liu, S., N. Bliss, E. T. Sundquist, and T. G. Huntington, 2003: Modeling carbon dynamics in vegetation and soil under the impact of soil erosion and deposition. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 17, doi: 10.1029/2002GB002010.

Liu, S., Y. Wu, C. Young, D. Dahal, J. L. Werner, and J. Liu, 2012a: Projected Future Carbon Storage and Greenhouse-Gas Fluxes of Terrestrial Ecosystems in the Western United States. U.S. Geological Survey.

Liu, S., J. Liu, Y. Wu, C. J. Young, J. M. Werner, D. Dahal, J. Oeding, and G. L. Schmidt, 2014: Baseline and projected future carbon storage, carbon sequestration, and greenhouse-gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems of the Eastern United States. In: Baseline and Projected Future Carbon Storage and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Ecosystems of the Eastern United States, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1804. [Z. Zhu and B. C. Reed (eds.)]. pp. 115-156.

Liu, S., J. Liu, C. Young, J. Werner, Y. Wu, Z. Li, D. Dahal, J. Oeding, G. Schmidt, T. Sohl, T. Hawbaker, and B. Sleeter, 2011: Baseline and Projected Future Carbon Storage and Greenhouse-Gas Fluxes in Ecosystems of the Western United States, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1797. [Z. Zhu and B. Reed (eds.)]. U.S. Geological Survey, 20 pp. [URL]

Liu, S., J. Liu, C. Young, J. Werner, Y. Wu, Z. Li, D. Dahal, J. Oeding, G. Schmidt, T. Sohl, T. Hawbaker, and B. Sleeter, 2012b: Baseline carbon storage, carbon sequestration, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems of the western United States. In: Baseline and Projected Future Carbon Storage and Greenhouse-Gas Fluxes in Ecosystems of the Western United States, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1797. [Z. Zhu and B. Reed (eds.)]. US Geological Survey, 20 pp.

Lu, M., X. H. Zhou, Q. Yang, H. Li, Y. Q. Luo, C. M. Fang, J. K. Chen, X. Yang, and B. Li, 2013: Responses of ecosystem carbon cycle to experimental warming: A meta-analysis. Ecology, 94(3), 726-738.

Luo, Y., 2007: Terrestrial carbon-cycle feedback to climate warming. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 38, 683-712.

Luo, Y., D. Hui, and D. Zhang, 2006: Elevated CO2 stimulates net accumulations of carbon and nitrogen in land ecosystems: A meta-analysis. Ecology, 87(1), 53-63, doi: 10.1890/04-1724.

Luo, Y., D. Gerten, G. Le Maire, W. J. Parton, E. Weng, X. Zhou, C. Keough, C. Beier, P. Ciais, W. Cramer, J. S. Dukes, B. Emmett, P. J. Hanson, A. Knapp, S. Linder, D. Nepstad, and L. Rustad, 2008: Modeled interactive effects of precipitation, temperature, and CO2 on ecosystem carbon and water dynamics in different climatic zones. Global Change Biology, 14(9), 1986-1999, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01629.x.

Luo, Y ., J. Melillo, S. L. Niu, C. Beier, J. S. Clark, A. T. Classen, E. Davidson, J. S. Dukes, R. D. Evans, C. B. Field, C. I. Czimczik, M. Keller, B. A. Kimball, L. M. Kueppers, R. J. Norby, S. L. Pelini, E. Pendall, E. Rastetter, J. Six, M. Smith, M. G. Tjoelker, and M. S. Torn, 2011: Coordinated approaches to quantify long-term ecosystem dynamics in response to global change. Global Change Biology, 17(2), 843-854, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02265.x.

Machmuller, M. B., M. G. Kramer, T. K. Cyle, N. Hill, D. Hancock, and A. Thompson, 2015: Emerging land use practices rapidly increase soil organic matter. Nature Communicatons, 6, 6995, doi: 10.1038/ncomms7995.

McClaran, M. P., 1997: Desert grasslands and grasses. In: The Desert Grassland. [M. P. McClaran and T. R. V. Devender (eds.)]. University of Arizona Press.

McClaran, M. P., D. M. Browning, and C. Huang, 2010: Temporal dynamics and spatial variability in desert grassland vegetation. In: Repeat Photography: Methods and Applications in the Natural Sciences. [R. H. Webb, D. E. Boyer, and R. M. Turner (eds.)]. Island Press.

McKinley, D. C., and J. M. Blair, 2008: Woody plant encroachment by Juniperus virginiana in a mesic native grassland promotes rapid carbon and nitrogen accrual. Ecosystems, 11(3), 454-468, doi: 10.1007/s10021-008-9133-4.

McSherry, M. E., and M. E. Ritchie, 2013: Effects of grazing on grassland soil carbon: A global review. Global Change Biology, 19, 1347-1357, doi: 10.1111/gcb.12144.

Medlyn, B. E., S. Zaehle, M. G. De Kauwe, A. P. Walker, M. C. Dietze, P. J. Hanson, T. Hickler, A. K. Jain, Y. Q. Luo, W. Parton, I. C. Prentice, P. E. Thornton, S. S. Wang, Y. P. Wang, E. S. Weng, C. M. Iversen, H. R. McCarthy, J. M. Warren, R. Oren, and R. J. Norby, 2015: Using ecosystem experiments to improve vegetation models. Nature Climate Change, 5(6), 528-534, doi: 10.1038/nclimate2621.

Milchunas, D. G., O. E. Sala, and W. K. Lauenroth, 1988: A generalized model of the effects of grazing by large herbivores on grassland community structure. The American Naturalist, 132, 87-106.

Min, S. K., X. Zhang, F. W. Zwiers, and G. C. Hegerl, 2011: Human contribution to more-intense precipitation extremes. Nature, 470(7334), 378-381, doi: 10.1038/nature09763.

Moran, M. S., G. E. Ponce-Campos, A. Huete, M. P. McClaran, Y. Zhang, E. P. Hamerlynck, D. J. Augustine, S. A. Gunter, S. G. Kitchen, D. P. Peters, P. J. Starks, and M. Hernandez, 2014: Functional response of U.S. grasslands to the early 21st-century drought. Ecology, 95, 2121-2133.

Morgan, J. A., W. Parton, J. D. Derner, T. G. Gilmanov, and D. P. Smith, 2016: Importance of early season conditions and grazing on carbon dioxide fluxes in Colorado shortgrass steppe. Rangeland Ecology and Management, 69(5), 342-350, doi: 10.1016/j.rama.2016.05.002.

Morgan, J. A., D. R. LeCain, E. Pendall, D. M. Blumenthal, B. A. Kimball, Y. Carrillo, D. G. Williams, J. Heisler-White, F. A. Dijkstra, and M. West, 2011: C4 grasses prosper as carbon dioxide eliminates desiccation in warmed semi-arid grassland. Nature, 476(7359), 202-205, doi: 10.1038/nature10274.

Mueller, K. E., D. M. Blumenthal, E. Pendall, Y. Carrillo, F. A. Dijkstra, D. G. Williams, R. F. Follett, and J. A. Morgan, 2016: Impacts of warming and elevated CO2 on a semi-arid grassland are non-additive, shift with precipitation, and reverse over time. Ecology Letters, 19(8), 956-966, doi: 10.1111/ele.12634.

Nie, M., and E. Pendall, 2016: Do rhizosphere priming effects enhance plant nitrogen uptake under elevated CO2? Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 224, 50-55, doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2016.03.032.

Norby, R. J., and Y. Q. Luo, 2004: Evaluating ecosystem responses to rising atmospheric CO2 and global warming in a multi-factor world. New Phytologist, 162, 281-293, doi:. 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01047.x.

Norton, U., A. R. Mosier, J. A. Morgan, J. D. Derner, L. J. Ingram, and P. D. Stahl, 2008: Moisture pulses, trace gas emissions and soil C and N in cheatgrass and native grass-dominated ­sagebrush-steppe in Wyoming, USA. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 40(6), 1421-1431, doi: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2007.12.021.

Omernik, J., 1987: Map supplements: Ecoregions of the conterminous United States. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 77, 118-125.

Owensby, C. E., J. M. Ham, and L. M. Auen, 2006: Fluxes of CO2 from grazed and ungrazed tallgrass prairie. Rangeland Ecology and Management, 59(2), 111-127, doi: 10.2111/05-116r2.1.

Pacala, S., R. A. Birdsey, S. D. Bridgham, R. T. Conant, K. Davis, B. Hales, R. A. Houghton, J. C. Jenkins, M. Johnston, G. Marland, and K. Paustian, 2007: The North American carbon budget past and present. In: First State of the Carbon Cycle Report (SOCCR): The North American Carbon Budget and Implications for the Global Carbon Cycle. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [A. King, W. L. Dilling, G. P. Zimmerman, D. M. Fairman, R. A. Houghton, G. Marland, A. Z. Rose, and T. J. Wilbanks (eds.)]. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC, USA, 29-36 pp.

Parton, W. J., D. S. Schimel, C. V. Cole, and D. S. Ojima, 1987: Analysis of factors controlling soil organic matter levels in great plains grasslands. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 51, 1173-1179.

Parton, W. J., J. A. Morgan, G. Wang, and S. Del Grosso, 2007: Projected ecosystem impact of the prairie heating and CO2 enrichment experiment. New Phytologist, 174(4), 823-834, doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02052.x.

Pendall, E., J. L. Heisler-White, D. G. Williams, F. A. Dijkstra, Y. Carrillo, J. A. Morgan, and D. R. Lecain, 2013: Warming reduces carbon losses from grassland exposed to elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide. PLOS One, 8(8), e71921, doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071921.

Pendall, E., S. Del Grosso, J. Y. King, D. R. LeCain, D. G. Milchunas, J. A. Morgan, A. R. Mosier, D. S. Ojima, W. A. Parton, P. P. Tans, and J. W. C. White, 2003: Elevated atmospheric CO2 effects and soil water feedbacks on soil respiration components in a Colorado grassland. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 17(2), doi: 10.1029/2001gb001821.

Peters, D. P., J. Yao, O. E. Sala, and J. P. Anderson, 2012: Directional climate change and potential reversal of desertification in arid and semiarid ecosystems. Global Change Biology, 18, 151-163.

Petrie, M. D., S. L. Collins, A. M. Swann, P. L. Ford, and M. E. Litvak, 2015: Grassland to shrubland state transitions enhance carbon sequestration in the northern Chihuahuan Desert. Global Change Biology, 21(3), 1226-1235, doi: 10.1111/gcb.12743.

Polley, H. W., A. B. Frank, J. Sanabria, and R. L. Phillips, 2008: Interannual variability in carbon dioxide fluxes and flux-climate relationships on grazed and ungrazed northern mixed-grass prairie. Global Change Biology, 14(7), 1620-1632, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01599.x.

Polley, H. W., D. D. Briske, J. A. Morgan, K. Wolter, D. W. Bailey, and J. R. Brown, 2013: Climate change and North American rangelands: Trends, projections, and implications. Rangeland Ecology and Management, 66(5), 493-511, doi: 10.2111/Rem-D-12-00068.1.

Potter, K. N., and J. D. Derner, 2006: Soil carbon pools in central Texas: Prairies, restored grasslands, and croplands. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 61(3), 124-128.

Prater, M. R., D. Obrist, J. A. Arnone, and E. H. DeLucia, 2006: Net carbon exchange and evapotranspiration in postfire and intact sagebrush communities in the Great Basin. Oecologia, 146, 595-607, doi: 10.1007/s00442-005-0231-0.

Quiroga, R. E., R. A. Golluscio, L. J. Blanco, and R. J. Fernandez, 2010: Aridity and grazing as convergent selective forces: An experiment with an Arid Chaco bunchgrass. Ecological Applications, 20, 1876-1889.

Raczka, B. M., K. J. Davis, D. Huntzinger, R. P. Neilson, B. Poulter, A. D. Richardson, J. F. Xiao, I. Baker, P. Ciais, T. F. Keenan, B. Law, W. M. Post, D. Ricciuto, K. Schaefer, H. Q. Tian, E. Tomelleri, H. Verbeeck, and N. Viovy, 2013: Evaluation of continental carbon cycle simulations with North American flux tower observations. Ecological Monographs, 83(4), 531-556, doi: 10.1890/12-0893.1.

Reeves, M. C., and J. Mitchell, 2012: A Synoptic View of U.S. Rangelands: A Technical Document Supporting the Forest Service 2010 RPA Assessment. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-288, 128 pp. [URL]

Reeves, M. C., A. L. Moreno, K. E. Bagne, and S. W. Running, 2014: Estimating climate change effects on net primary production of rangelands in the United States. Climatic Change, 126(3-4), 429-442, doi: 10.1007/s10584-014-1235-8.

Reich, P. B., and S. E. Hobbie, 2013: Decade-long soil nitrogen constraint on the CO2 fertilization of plant biomass. Nature Climate Change, 3(3), 278-282, doi: 10.1038/Nclimate1694.

Reyes-Fox, M., H. Steltzer, M. J. Trlica, G. S. McMaster, A. A. Andales, D. R. LeCain, and J. A. Morgan, 2014: Elevated CO2 further lengthens growing season under warming conditions. Nature, 510(7504), 259-262, doi: 10.1038/nature13207.

Risch, A. C., and D. A. Frank, 2006: Carbon dioxide fluxes in a spatially and temporally heterogeneous temperate grassland. Oecologia, 147(2), 291-302, doi: 10.1007/s00442-005-0261-7.

Ryan, E. M., K. Ogle, D. Peltier, A. P. Walker, M. G. De Kauwe, B. E. Medlyn, D. G. Williams, W. Parton, S. Asao, B. Guenet, A. Harper, X. Lu, K. A. Luus, S. Zaehle, S. Shu, C. Werner, J. Xia, and E. Pendall, 2016: Gross primary production responses to warming, elevated CO2, and irrigation: Quantifying the drivers of ecosystem physiology in a semiarid grassland. Global Change Biology, doi: 10.1111/gcb.13602.

Sanderman, J., and R. Amundson, 2008: A comparative study of dissolved organic carbon transport and stabilization in California forest and grassland soils. Biogeochemistry, 89(3), 309-327, doi: 10.1007/s10533-008-9221-8.

Scott, R. L., J. A. Biederman, E. P. Hamerlynck, and G. A. Barron-Gafford, 2015: The carbon balance pivot point of southwestern U.S. semiarid ecosystems: Insights from the 21st century drought. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 120(12), 2612-2624, doi: 10.1002/2015jg003181.

Shi, Z., X. Xu, O. Hararuk, L. F. Jiang, J. Y. Xia, J. Y. Liang, D. J. Li, and Y. Q. Luo, 2015: Experimental warming altered rates of carbon processes, allocation, and carbon storage in a tallgrass prairie. Ecosphere, 6(11), doi: 10.1890/Es14-00335.1.

Silver, W. L., R. Ryals, and V. Eviner, 2010: Soil carbon pools in California’s annual grassland ecosystems. Rangeland Ecology and Management, 63(1), 128-136, doi: 10.2111/Rem-D-09-00106.1.

Sims, P. L., and P. G. Risser, 2000: Grasslands. In: North American Terrestrial Vegetation. [M. G. Barbour and Billings (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, pp. 323-356.

Sleeter, B. M., T. L. Sohl, M. A. Bouchard, R. R. Reker, C. E. Soulard, W. Acevedo, G. E. Griffith, R. R. Sleeter, R. F. Auch, K. L. Sayler, S. Prisley, and Z. L. Zhu, 2012: Scenarios of land use and land cover change in the conterminous United States: Utilizing the special report on emission scenarios at ecoregional scales. Global Environmental Change-Human and Policy Dimensions, 22(4), 896-914, doi: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2012.03.008.

Smith, P., C. M. Fang, J. J. C. Dawson, and J. B. Moncrieff, 2008: Impact of global warming on soil organic carbon. Advances in Agronomy, 97, 1-43, doi: 10.1016/S0065-2113(07)00001-6.

Sohl, T. L., K. L. Sayler, M. A. Drummond, and T. R. Loveland, 2007: The FORE-SCE model: A practical approach for projecting land cover change using scenario-based modeling. Journal of Land Use Science, 2(2), 103-126, doi: 10.1080/17474230701218202.

Soong, J. L., and M. F. Cotrufo, 2015: Annual burning of a tallgrass prairie inhibits C and N cycling in soil, increasing recalcitrant pyrogenic organic matter storage while reducing N availability. Global Change Biology, 21(6), 2321-2333, doi: 10.1111/gcb.12832.

Soussana, J.-F., P. Loiseau, N. Vuichard, E. Ceschia, J. Balesdent, T. Chevallier, and D. Arrouays, 2004: Carbon cycling and sequestration opportunities in temperate grasslands. Soil Use and Management, 20, 219-230, doi: 10.1079/SUM2003234.

Stephenson, K. E., 2011: Distribution of Grasslands in 19th Century Florida. American Midland Naturalist, 165, 50-59, doi: 10.1674/0003-0031-165.1.50.

Stubbs, M., 2014: Conservation Reserve Program (CRP): Status and Issues. Congressional Research Service 7-5700. R42783. [URL]

Svejcar, T., R. Angell, J. A. Bradford, W. Dugas, W. Emmerich, A. B. Frank, T. Gilmanov, M. Haferkamp, D. A. Johnson, H. Mayeux, P. Mielnick, J. Morgan, N. Z. Saliendra, G. E. Schuman, P. L. Sims, and K. Snyder, 2008: Carbon fluxes on North American rangelands. Rangeland Ecology and Management, 61(5), 465-474, doi: 10.2111/07-108.1.

Teague, W. R., S. L. Dowhower, S. A. Baker, N. Haile, P. B. DeLaune, and D. M. Conover, 2011: Grazing management impacts on vegetation, soil biota and soil chemical, physical and hydrological properties in tall grass prairie. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 141(3-4), 310-322, doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2011.03.009.

Thomey, M. L., P. L. Ford, M. C. Reeves, D. M. Finch, M. E. Litvak, and S. L. Collins, 2014: Climate change impacts on future carbon stores and management of warm deserts of the United States. Rangelands, 36(1), 16-24, doi: 10.2111/rangelands-d-13-00045.1.

Thomey, M. L., S. L. Collins, R. Vargas, J. E. Johnson, R. F. Brown, D. O. Natvig, and M. T. Friggens, 2011: Effect of precipitation variability on net primary production and soil respiration in a chihuahuan desert grassland. Global Change Biology, 17(4), 1505-1515, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02363.x.

Todd-Brown, K. E. O., J. T. Randerson, W. M. Post, F. M. Hoffman, C. Tarnocai, E. A. G. Schuur, and S. D. Allison, 2013: Causes of variation in soil carbon simulations from CMIP5 Earth system models and comparison with observations. Biogeosciences, 10(3), 1717-1736, doi: 10.5194/bg-10-1717-2013.

van Groenigen, K. J., X. Qi, C. W. Osenberg, Y. Luo, and B. A. Hungate, 2014: Faster decomposition under increased atmospheric CO2 limits soil carbon storage. Science, 344(6183), 508-509, doi: 10.1126/science.1249534.

Verburg, P. S. J., J. A. Arnone, D. Obrist, D. E. Schorran, R. D. Evans, D. Leroux-Swarthout, D. W. Johnson, Y. Q. Luo, and J. S. Coleman, 2004: Net ecosystem carbon exchange in two experimental grassland ecosystems. Global Change Biology, 10(4), 498-508, doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2003.00744.x.

Wang, Y. P., J. Jiang, B. Chen-Charpentier, F. B. Agusto, A. Hastings, F. Hoffman, M. Rasmussen, M. J. Smith, K. Todd-Brown, Y. Wang, X. Xu, and Y. Q. Luo, 2015: Responses of two nonlinear microbial models to warming or increased carbon input. Biogeosciences Discussions, 12(17), 14647-14692, doi: 10.5194/bgd-12-14647-2015.

Wertin, T. M., J. Belnap, and S. C. Reed, 2017: Experimental warming in a dryland community reduced plant photosynthesis and soil CO2 efflux although the relationship between the fluxes remained unchanged. Functional Ecology, 31(2), 297-305, doi: 10.1111/1365-2435.12708.

Wertin, T. M., S. C. Reed, and J. Belnap, 2015: C3 and C4 plant responses to increased temperatures and altered monsoonal precipitation in a cool desert on the Colorado Plateau, USA. Oecologia, 177(4), 997-1013, doi: 10.1007/s00442-015-3235-4.

Wieder, W. R., S. D. Allison, E. A. Davidson, K. Georgiou, O. Hararuk, Y. J. He, F. Hopkins, Y. Q. Luo, M. J. Smith, B. Sulman, K. Todd-Brown, Y. P. Wang, J. Y. Xia, and X. F. Xu, 2015: Explicitly representing soil microbial processes in Earth system models. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 29(10), 1782-1800, doi: 10.1002/2015gb005188.

Wylie, B., D. Howard, D. Dahal, T. Gilmanov, L. Ji, L. Zhang, and K. Smith, 2016: Grassland and cropland net ecosystem production of the U.S. Great Plains: Regression tree model development and comparative analysis. Remote Sensing, 8(11), 944, doi: 10.3390/rs8110944.

Xiao, J. F., S. V. Ollinger, S. Frolking, G. C. Hurtt, D. Y. Hollinger, K. J. Davis, Y. D. Pan, X. Y. Zhang, F. Deng, J. Q. Chen, D. D. Baldocchi, B. E. Law, M. A. Arain, A. R. Desai, A. D. Richardson, G. Sun, B. Amiro, H. Margolis, L. H. Gu, R. L. Scott, P. D. Blanken, and A. E. Suyker, 2014: Data-driven diagnostics of terrestrial carbon dynamics over North America. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 197, 142-157, doi: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2014.06.013.

Zelikova, T. J., D. G. Williams, R. Hoenigman, D. M. Blumenthal, J. A. Morgan, and E. Pendall, 2015: Seasonality of soil moisture mediates responses of ecosystem phenology to elevated CO2 and warming in a semi-arid grassland. Journal of Ecology, 103(5), 1119-1130, doi: 10.1111/1365-2745.12440.

Zhang, L., B. K. Wylie, L. Ji, T. G. Gilmanov, L. L. Tieszen, and D. M. Howard, 2011: Upscaling carbon fluxes over the Great Plains grasslands: Sinks and sources. Journal of Geophysical Research, 116(G3), doi: 10.1029/2010jg001504.

Zhou, X. H., L. Y. Zhou, Y. Y. Nie, Y. L. Fu, Z. G. Du, J. J. Shao, Z. M. Zheng, and X. H. Wang, 2016: Similar responses of soil carbon storage to drought and irrigation in terrestrial ecosystems but with contrasting mechanisms: A meta-analysis. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 228, 70-81, doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2016.04.030.

Zhu, Z., and B. Reed, 2012: Baseline and Projected Future Carbon Storage and Greenhouse-Gas Fluxes in Ecosystems of the Western United States. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1797. 192 pp. [URL]

Zhu, Z., and B. Reed, 2014: Baseline and Projected Future Carbon Storage and Greenhouse-Gas Fluxes in Ecosystems of the Eastern United States. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1804.

Zhu, Z., M. Bouchard, D. Butman, T. Hawbaker, Z. Li, J. Liu, S. Liu, C. McDonald, R. Reker, K. Sayler, B. Sleeter, T. Sohl, S. Stackpoole, and A. Wein, 2011: Baseline and Projected Future Carbon Storage and Greenhouse-Gas Fluxes in the Great Plains Region of the United States. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1787, [Z. Zhu (ed.)]. 28 pp.

  1. Carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e): Amount of CO2 that would produce the same effect on the radiative balance of Earth’s climate system as another greenhouse gas, such as methane (CH4) or nitrous oxide (N2O), on a 100-year timescale. For comparison to units of carbon, each kg CO2e is equivalent to 0.273 kg C (0.273 = 1/3.67). See Box P.2, p. 12, in the Preface for details.↩


See Full Chapter & References